hassan mehrnia

The relationship between language and reality, the role of language in thought, and the structure and function of language have been topics of interest in philosophy since ancient times. These topics became central to the study of psychology and linguistics in the 17th and 18th centuries. This paper examines the interplay between language and mind in Locke's thought, focusing on traditional and modern interpretations of his views. By examining Locke's epistemological and linguistic ideas, especially in his books "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and "Some Thoughts Concerning Education," we conclude that he proposes a theory of language as a system of codes. He considers words to be symbols of mental concepts and language to be a mirror of culture. Due to its complexity, subtlety, the diversity of philosophical and ideological presuppositions, historical developments in philosophy and linguistics, and ultimately the ambiguity in Locke's writing, this view has been interpreted in four different ways: traditional, structuralist, pragmatic, and feminist. This paper examines and critiques these four approaches, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. It aims to present a philosophical explanation of Locke's linguistic theory, free from political, social, ideological, and feminist controversies.

The present article studies the teaching model of Martin Heidegger, as one of the most effective existential philosophers of the 20th century. Heidegger defines the teaching process as a herald of "giving opportunity for learning" and considers it necessary and at the same time difficult for the teacher to learn how to give this opportunity. Therefore, in this article, focusing on the above definition, after stating the requirements of teaching and clarifying the concept of learning in Heidegger's thought, we will analyze how to allow and examine its dimensions and stages according to Heidegger's teaching model. By studying and examining Heidegger's various works, especially the phenomenal examination of his teaching model, we will see in this article that: First, in his intellectual and educational system, he tried to provide a new definition of teaching and learning, which is completely separate from the intellectual tradition of his time and it is alien and at the same time in harmony with his own thought. Secondly, he considers teaching to have different dimensions and phenomenal stages, neglecting which will make the teaching process sterile. Among these different dimensions and stages, the following topics have been considered in this research: the interactive process of learning, the topic of interest, existential encounter, creating enthusiasm, listening, leaving the familiar territory, questioning and leaping.

The article aims to recognize the pragmatic rational method in Sadugh's scientific discipline. Rationality is the link between man and the universe that arises from the objective relationship with the external world. Using the theory of communicative rationality and the method of documentary analysis in Sadugh's intellectual life, this research concludes that Sadugh has debated, corresponded, and discussed by quoting narrations related to reason and using the content of the narrations in an argumentative way. In addition, by using the works of other scientists, attending scientific and political centers in a completely rational way and following the Quran, the Noble Prophet (S) and Ahl al-Bayt (his household), Sadugh, in proportion to his life, has taken a pragmatic rational approach in his scientific life in various scientific categories and concepts such as reasoning in the best dialogue and accepting the superior reason, respecting and loving human beings and consulting with them, migrating for scientific and propaganda purposes and conducting debates and discussions, pursuing education and guidance with the preservation of human dignity, as well as socializing and believing in the Imamate as a factor of unity, security and justice

Upgrading the epistemic context of modern science from mechanism to organism in German idealism allows Émile Durkheim to establish academic social science in France. The philosophical formulation of necessity and freedom (from Kant's dualism to Schelling's and Hegel's philosophy of nature) evolves in German idealism to the extent that it is possible to legalize the social affairs in the essential field of positivist science. Basic concepts and ideas of Durkheim's sociology, such as organic solidarity and division of social work, can be realized with the features of an organic approach such as a priori unity, internal consistency, and the necessity and legitimacy of the organic affairs, in a way that a prerequisite for understanding Durkheim's fundamental difference with English social science, as Durkheim repeatedly states, is to understand the quality of his thinking within the German tradition. Moreover, ethics, which prior to Durkheim, are independent sciences, are based on the organic approach to positivist science; therefore, the ethics of science is established with Durkheim.

One of the significant and influential aspects of the philosophy of technology is the historical background of the concepts related to this field in the words of the writers and thinkers of ancient Greece. Among such concepts, the concept of techne, in the sense of technique, industry, or art, and its place in ancient Greek works is of greater importance. Martin Heidegger was one of the first thinkers who conceived of the study of the concept of techne in ancient Greece as the introduction of a distinct perception of modern technology and held a particular view in this regard. Through the study of three groups of Greek texts, the present paper initially aims to trace the main elements of the concept of techne in the view of ancient Greek writers and thinkers. Second, through investigating Heidegger’s view, it intends to reintroduce the core of his analysis of this problem. Finally, it demonstrates that, firstly, techne is a rich concept, which, given its various elements, was so attractive to Greek thinkers that they used it in their philosophical discussions; secondly, its main elements have been repeated during ancient periods. However, in some periods, due to the existing conditions and views of different thinkers, some of its elements have become more foregrounded. The writers also conclude that reducing the complicated and multi-dimensional concept of techne into a general element does not appear to be correct and accurate.

For a long time, most of the scientists believed in antagonism between science and religion, and that religion has nothing to do with reality.
In this paper, the viewpoint of Hegel, will be taken into consideration. According to him, in the history of the world, human being's knowledge has risen up gradually and in each period, there has been a parallel dialogue and interaction between science and religion of that time. The reason is that as science has developed in the process of history, religions have also got more rational and complicated. So, according to Hegel, science has not led us to a secular and naturalistic or a materialistic orientation in 21th century and the story of antagonism between science and religion is a factitious and fabricated story.

One of the great important issues that all Prophets, during ages, seek was solidarity, classless society and oneness. In Islamic civilization, the Prophet of Islam and all Shiite Imams wanted to reach this purpose. But despite of the measures by the Prophet Muhammad (s) himself, after his death, Islamic community has been faced by chaos, segregation and even wars. The basic principles of a new Islamic civilization is: public Endeavour of Muslim people, have faith in God and believe in his goodness, Islamic awakening, outline a big and long term plans, revival of morals, avoid of alienation by merely copy western culture and so on. In this paper, we review the social conditions of our era and try to examine them. We point out, then, to some measures related to it that have happened lately by Muslim thinkers, reformists and clergymen of Shiite and Sunni denominations, afterwards, we discus some practical solution to build a new Islamic civilization.

One of the most important issues throughout the history of human thought is religion, and one of the most influential philosophers in the Western tradition is Imanuel Kant. Kant has been influential in many fields, including religion. His religious views have been interpreted in ways that have sometimes been surrounded with misunderstandings. In this paper I will review Kant's philosophical system, showing that his religious thought has two stages: negative and positive. In the First Critique and Prolegomena, Kant presents his epistemological view and seeks to limit the scope of reason in order to find room for religion—this is the negative stage at which he takes the basic notions of God, soul and will to be unprovable by reason, but in the Second Critique, Kant concerns himself with morality—this is the second stage at which he subjects religion to morality. This approach, in my view, has led him to secularism and the suspension of reason in religious matters. Thus, I seek to undermine the principles on which he criticized religion.

Discussion about relation between Religion and politics or State has been proposed for long time in east and west. So it is not limited to our nation and or period. In this paper we will show that: A) in throughout of the history of western thought from one side political governors (Kaiser) for surviving their domain and authorities need to protect by legitimacy of religion; on the other hand, all the popes and bishops of Church were in pursuit of authority that belong to Kaiser. Although there were times that they tried to conquer to each other. B) We must distinguish between the nature of religion, as a heavenly and sacred object, and the managers of church (pope or bishop) and their actions. Because their disability in establishing a real society and formulating good rules

Religion and State from the beginning of world's history were two important issues which have occupied human mind. For a long time, there has been a dispute about the relationship between them. In this quarrel, we can find three main views: isotropy, divergence, and ascendancy of one of them to the other.In this paper, we have a brief look on Hegel’s political and religious thoughts and his turning in his viewpoints. Then we examine and criticize his opinions about politics and religion. Further, we should notice that although he regards religion only as an instrument in the hands of the state, we are not allowed to regard him as an atheist philosopher or as an adherent of separation between state and religion.At the end of the paper, we find that although the theory of “organic state” which Hegel suggests for solving the “paradox of liberty and submission” is a growth head way in comparison with “mechanical view” of Lock and Hobbes about the social contract and with Benthamian utilitarianism, but firstly, there is no restriction against becoming his constitutional monarchy to a kind of dictatorship and secondly, as he finally regards religion as a servant for the state, the relationships between state and religion remains unsolved in his philosophical system.

Aristotle and Descartes have been known as two permanent philosophers belonging respectively to ancient Greek and modern times. Their views on ethics have been studied comparatively in this paper. In his “discourse de la method”, Descartes has argued against the scholars of ethics, particularly against Aristotle, in detail. Knowing their ethics as a kind of exaggeration, figment of the imagination and a descriptive field, he claims that in their ethics, one can never find a way to ascend the highest point in morality. Descartes himself, however, promises that he will show the straight way for reaching the highest morality and found an applicable and prescriptive ethics in his system.In this paper it has been made clear that neither Descartes` claims against scholastic scholars have proven true nor his promise has been performed. In spite a great and fundamental utilizing Aristotelian ethico-metaphysical teachings, one can say that Descartes has not gone in justice toward Aristotle.