فهرست مطالب mohammad zohdi goharpour

For more than 40 years, Robert Dahl’s theory of polyarchy democracy has been considered by scholars as one of the most effective, robust, and enlightening forms of contemporary revisionist democratic theory. The English version of this book was published in 1971 and its translation was published in 2018. Polyarchy is defined as a set of institutional arrangements that allow for public opposition and inclusive participation in politics. The central assumption of the sign in this book, which involves a linear process, is that when hegemonic systems and competitive dictatorships move toward multiculturalism, opportunities for effective participation and questioning increase. Therefore, the number of individuals, groups, and interests whose policy priorities are considered increases. In this article, an attempt is made to examine the intellectual background and studies of Robert Dahl over two decades (1970-1950) and to identify the roots of the development of his theory of polyarchy democracy, presented in the form of an independent book, in his earlier works.

No doubt that the specialized vocabulary in every science, represented those science, and scientific language as an integral part of every science. Any scientific study requires the loss of a coherent set of specific vocabulary of the discipline, synonyms for them, and suggest them to precisely define the areas of disagreement and eliminate possible misunderstandings.
The etymological origin of ‘territory’ is often traced back to the Latin ‘terra’ (geographic area) and ‘terrere’ (to frighten: to terrorise).Territory is back. For long something of a poor relation among spatial concepts, and until recently on the wane politically, territory today seems to be ever more important. Borders, security, sovereignty, secession, invasion and occupation—all usually seen as close correlates of territory—are rarely out of the news. Meanwhile, in political theory and philosophy, the fashionable notion of deterritorialisation cannot be separated from a correlative reterritorialisation. Territory’s time has come, or so it seems.
If any kind of space is quintessentially “state space”, it is surely “territory”. Yet, for all the far-reaching discussion of the territorial re-organization of the contemporary state, the decline and rise of the political salience of territory, and the implications of territory for the exercise of power, the nature of territory itself—it's being and becoming, rather than its consequences and effects—remains under-theorized and too often taken for granted. The intense engagement with diverse forms of social theory that has marked human geography since the 1980s has involved a comprehensive interrogation and re-thinking of many of the core concepts of the discipline, including space, place, landscape, region and scale. Until recently, however, the concept of territory has not received the same level of attention, at least in the Anglophone literature.
It is interesting to think about the reasons for this relative neglect. It seems plausible to suggest that among critical human geographers the concept of territory may even have been seen as something of an embarrassment. There are a couple of possible explanations for this, particularly if we accept for the sake of argument that territory has usually been understood as a bounded and in some respects homogeneous portion of geographical space.
Geographical thinking in the 1980s and 1990s came increasingly to emphasize the porosity and fluidity of boundaries, and the supposedly consequent reduction in their political salience. It also stressed the increasingly (or even intrinsically) heterogeneous character of space and place. In these circumstances, invoking the concept of territory risked being seen as either anachronistic (because the world had changed) or reactionary (because an insistence on seeing the world in terms of bounded and homogenous spaces suggested a fear of Otherness and an exclusionary attitude to social and cultural difference).
The concept of territory may also have been embarrassing for some because of its ill-defined, but powerful associations with the use of similar concepts in animal ethology and socio-biology. After all, one of the commonest uses of the term “territory” in general discourse is to refer to the home range of an animal, particularly with reference to aggressive and defensive behaviors. Of course, anything that risks smuggling socio-biological assumptions into studies of human activity is anathema to most critical social scientists. A similar mistrust of ideas smacking of environmental determinism may have added to the suspicion with which the concept of territory has sometimes been regarded.
Although many discussions of territory suggest that it is fundamentally a political phenomenon, the perception that it also often involves fixed borders perhaps raised the spectre of “natural boundaries” and nineteenth century understandings about the relationship between culture and environment: desert peoples, mountain peoples, forest peoples and plains peoples; each with a special ineffable bond between culture, nature and “territory”.
The assertion of territorial control has been explained as an innate, instinctive inclination of human beings to possess and to defend an area against intruders, similar to animals. Although every individual human being requires some space to live, and feels emotionally attached to certain places, the diversity of political entities in the past and present shows that neither individuals nor social collectives seek instinctively fixed, closed, and clearly demarcated territories for their survival or the protection of property. People may feel more comfortable and relaxed when they control ‘their’ territory, yet the scale and size of the territory they consider as their ‘natural’ home, or as their fatherland - their backyard, city, region, village, state, federation, neighborhood, empire, etc. - is indeterminate.
Political Geography has several concepts such as place, space, scale and territory, and so that the concepts are disputed. Concept of territory, according to many experts in the field of political geography, one of the most controversial concepts in this field. Choose the appropriate equivalent can help audience for easy understand. This study is fundamental theoretical, and descriptive analysis using primary sources in Persian and Latin, try to find the nature of the concept of territory and introduce appropriate equivalent in Persian political geography literature. As research founding's in appropriate equivalent for territory shows, political geographers use it in different meanings, beyond the understanding of natural geographers as a framework for natural processes, and also as human geographers consider the term mentioned as a static field of human events. In terms of political geography, territory is not only mere space for human action as physical framework, but is a clear reflection of "power relations between political actors", So that in several important aspects of social life and social power, such as function of "space control", "political actors", "borders and apply the monopoly rule" arises. So territory is field that individuals try to control by methods such as "defense", "control", "exclusion" and "inclusion", thus territory, in political geography literature confined space is defined by a boundary, that provides power and control for state; And thus the territory consist of the land, because the land is the physical and human (non-political) domain.

One of the basic requirements of any government is to protect the security under the sovereignty over geographic space. Nowadays, after transition from government's traditional challenges, we are facing with a new challenge; an organized phenomenon that endanger safety of society in the areas out of the government's control. This new challenge is called "holes in the state". Actors, at different levels, create these holes within the competitions and conflicts, in different social, economic, political and cultural areas, deepen and expand it. And finally they leave particular spatial effects behind these holes.The purpose of this research is to scrutinize the mechanisms governing the actors that use cybernetics in different levels and cyberspace and how this space affects holes in the state.This research is based on descriptive- analytic method and try to proof the hypothesis “The role of cybernetic factors in emergence of political and cultural holes" by case study and through underlying and analysis the relations between cyberspace and holes in the State.

promote gender empowerment indicators of women''s political participation in Central Asia and the Caucasus have been estimated and the status of women''s political participation and economic participation have two dimensions. Continuing with the analysis of qualitative content analysis results are profound and logical evidence، the current status of women in the region have identified two areas of political and economic participation. The results show that poor infrastructure، rule of totalitarian political systems، the deep impact of the former communist regime، poor educational and cultural structures of domination and patriarchy and women''s negative attitude to the political nature of most of the few women''s political participation countries in the study are noted.

Russia after the collapsing of Soviet Union ignored and left behind the Caspian Sea for a short time due to giving preference to relationship with West. Discovery of new sources of energy in the Caspian region and the significance of the geopolitical position of this region in Europe, Asia and the Middle East and the key role that plays in the power balances in the world, also West attention spatially America and the signing of several major oil deals with coastal republics, concerned the Russian government.  Therefore, Russia makes a swirl in its foreign policy in this area to create new strategies and stimulates Russian government to get back on the region and Once again, take their sovereignty back, through the use of military, political and economic power (according to the priorities of the Eurasian and economic policy integration in the countries of the Caspian basin that considered as a disadvantage).
There is the question due to recent changes in Russia after the Soviet collapse that whether Russia has necessary tools for apply its sovereignty on the Caspian Sea? With a little accuracy to actions, potentials and characteristics of Russia, this theory forms that Russian by using capacities, political, military and economic, has the necessitous tools to re-sovereignty of its power in the Caspian.

Traditional space relations among civilian space actors are undergoing in the post-cold war era a rapid evolution with a growing number of new institutional entities. The cold war era and its resulting political environment, which limited space cooperation to ‘intra- bloc’ cooperation, has disappeared, allowing the development of new axes and mechanisms of cooperation. The internationalization and regionalization of space activities witnessed in recent years is foreseen to gain momentum, leading therefore to a new geography of civilian space activities.

The most important issue of the present era that human being is faced with is the comprehensive development. Although many opportunities have been created in the twentieth century as a result of the scientific and technological revolution, there still exists a population of almost one sixth of the world that live on less than a dollar a day. The development is a difficult and complicated process but people should not be disappointed in achieving it. As many underdeveloped countries of the world have been able to achieve a secure social and economic development during the last fifty years. Many of these countries have had good achievements in the economic, health, and educational fields. In some of them, the national income per capita in the past (early 1960s) has fifty times increased. The growth rate that is unprecedented in human history. Therefore, the rapid and continuous development was considered unattainable dreams and desires, but it is an attainable reality. Consideration towards all the features and capabilities of a country is one of the secrets of success in this direction. In addition to the border areas’ economic importance, their development is security necessity. The direct and interactive effects of development and security in the border areas are crystal clear. Thus, the economic development of border areas and the increase in welfare and economic income of frontiers through healthy economic activities supported by government investment have a positive impact on border security work. On the other hand, increasing the healthy economic activities and governments investment in border areas, just in case that there is not a considerable economic difference in both sides of the borders, can also have a positive impact on the borders’ interactive functions. The Razi Market, which is investigated in this study, was established in the neighboring province of Wan in Turkey in Razi border village based on the signed protocol between Iran and Turkey in 1988 for conducting the border operations by Pilehvaran and frontiers. But, due to the lack of control over imports and exports by the customs it was closed in 1989 and re-opened in 1990. The authors of this study, which has been conducted in descriptive – analytical method, by investigating the Razi border market in during the years of its activity, are after this question whether the establishment of Khoy border Market was effective in border areas’ development after starting its activities again.

Nowadays, democracy has become one of the concerns of different governments and people in the world. In this case, some countries have managed to provide this kind of government in its best form for the people residing within their border. Such countries have also managed to provide high levels of security in social, political and economic arenas for their people by securing speech and press freedom and also other rights expected by democracy.Moving toward democracy was followed more strongly by coup d''etat in 1970s in a way that waves of democratization permeated most parts of the world and also today, governments have done their best to reach this lofty cause by establishing institutions.The writers of this article intend to specify the formation of this phenomenon in the world and familiarize the readers with the kinds and forms of ruling political systems in different regions by looking in to data of the Economist’s index rating the (world) countries regarding democracy in 2008.

Tourism is one of the most pioneering industry and major economic activity of the world which allocates more than 10% of the universal employment and national production. Additionally, world becomes a global village with vast and profound communications. Today, the information technology and its usages are the most fundamental keys for improvement of countries, especially for developing nations. Necessity of paying attention to tourism and the usage of modern technology for development of tourism is beneficial from its numerous economic advantages for countries which made it essential to investigate the relationship between improvement of information and communication technology and tourism development. ICT is now the basic element in the world of tourism and has an impressive contribution in national and transnational competitions of the countries. On the one hand, the outcome of the developing above issues in tourism created E-tourism and on the other hand, they created virtual tourism. By and large, the usage of information and communication technologies and its development in the field of supply and demand of tourism caused tourists evaluate their destinations before traveling and get a virtual experience in their mind about tourism framework. Furthermore, this issue made it possible to publicize the process of choosing travel’s destinations. Findings of this research indicate Iran’s weakness in the field of E-tourism. This article aims to determine the whole domain of tourism system, creating proper infrastructures, E-tourism‘s effects, challenges which exist in this field and finally suggest some methods appropriate for its development. This is a qualitative research and the method of study is descriptive-analytic. Documentary and library sources have been used in this research.