فهرست مطالب reza mazhari

Extended abstract
1- The recent global crisis and the emergence of widespread unemployment and declining economic growth in many economies have increased the importance of self-employment and entrepreneurial activities. in addition, in order to alleviate the government's responsibility in elimination of unemployment and developing entrepreneurship, various measures and policies have been considered to ensure the success of entrepreneurs, the most important of which is to establish an appropriate institutional framework to ensure the success of entrepreneurs. when formulating institutional policies support entrepreneurship then entrepreneurship can play an important role in national economic growth and development (Bjørnskov & Foss, 2013; Baumol & Strom, 2007; Levie et al., 2014). it should be noted, that in order for entrepreneurial activity to lead to economic growth, entrepreneurs must operate freely without worrying about government or others violating private property rights. entrepreneurs in a free market react to market incentives and price signals, and this leads to an efficient market trend. thus, just as countries provide more economic freedom by protecting private property, reducing regulations and taxes, and limiting rent-seeking opportunities. this leads to better institutional quality, which in turn promotes productive entrepreneurship and enhances economic growth and development (Gwartney & Lawson, 2009; Wiseman & Young; 2013). in fact, it can be concluded that the decision for entrepreneurial activity depends to some extent on whether the institutions support economic freedom or not. in other words, where there is no rigid government control, the conditions are right for an entrepreneurial business culture to emerge. however, this is not the case in many economies because the institutions that are supposed to promote entrepreneurial activities, on the contrary, restrict entrepreneurial activities. therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of economic freedom and entrepreneurial activities on economic growth in selected developing and developed countries.
2- THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The importance of the role of institutions in the relationship between entrepreneurship and economic growth has been studied in many studies (Acs et al., 2018; Bjørnskov & Foss, 2016). The findings of these studies indicate that the quality of institutions is a factor in encouraging productive entrepreneurship and a barrier to unproductive entrepreneurship; this, in turn, leads to higher economic growth. Market-supporting institutions (such as economic freedom and competitiveness) lead to higher rates of entrepreneurial activity, and increased entrepreneurial activity leads to greater economic growth (Urbano & Alvarez, 2014). Furthermore, the results of the research indicate that some of these differences are due to the diversity of types of entrepreneurships, the characteristics of the macroeconomic environment or the different institutional conditions in which entrepreneurs operate. On the one hand, in an economy with higher levels of institutional quality, the rate of entrepreneurship as one of the main factors increases economic growth. But on the other hand, in economies with low institutional quality, unproductive entrepreneurial activities take shape. That will have little or no negative impact on economic growth. Therefore, this insight can be used to understand and explain why entrepreneurial activities in some countries have strengthened economic growth but in some other countries have not encouraged economic growth.
3- The purpose of this study is to investigate the interaction between entrepreneurial activities and indicators of economic freedom on economic growth in selected developing countries for the period 2010-2018. the statistical population consists of 33 developed countries and 33 developing countries. the selection of countries is based on the availability of data.
One of the main challenges in the empirical test of the impact of institutions on economic growth is the endogenous nature of institutional variables. one of the suitable econometric methods to solve or reduce the problem of endogeniety of institutional indicators and correlations between institutional variables and other explanatory variables is model estimation using gmm approach of dynamic panel data. therefore, in the present study, GMM modeling has been used to examine the relationship between entrepreneurship, economic freedom and economic growth.
4- RESULTS & The results generally indicate that the interaction between entrepreneurship and indicators of total economic freedom, rule of law, efficiency of laws and regulations and open markets on economic growth in both groups of selected countries has been positive and significant. also, the interaction between government size and entrepreneurship in developed countries has been positive and significant, but has not been significant in developing countries. also, according to the model results, economic freedom in developing countries has had a greater impact on economic growth, but this effect has been weaker in the group of developed countries. because in developing countries with less economic freedom and more unemployment potential, improving freedom indicators will increase people's motivation for entrepreneurial activities and thus higher economic growth. in addition, the results indicate that the impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth has been positive in developed countries and negative in developing countries.
 
5- CONCLUSIONS & SUGGESTIONS
In this study, the interaction effect of economic freedom entrepreneurship on economic growth in two selected groups of developing and developed countries was investigated. according to results, the following suggestions are presented:Government policy should be taken to improve the index of economic freedom by enacting appropriate laws to facilitate investment, encourage foreign direct investment, remove restrictions on access to foreign currency, reduce tariffs appropriately, and remove non-tariff barriers.
Given the different impact of entrepreneurial activities in the two groups of countries under study, in expressing the belief that entrepreneurship always encourages economic growth, the aspect of caution should be considered. in fact, since most of the entrepreneurial activities in developing countries are of the necessity type, entrepreneurship has a negative relationship with economic growth in these countries. as a result, policymakers need to promote opportunity-based entrepreneurial activities by implementing policies such as improving institutional quality, providing the right business environment, and increasing the convenience of businesses.

The importance of establishing “Enabling Trade” measures in the countries of origin and destination of exports is of great importance in the international economic literature. In this regard, many studies have shown that improving Enabling Trade can reduce trade costs and improve export performance. However, in previous studies, the issue of Enabling Trade at export destinations and its impact on the commercial performance of export sources has not received much attention. In addition, the need for non-linear estimation of gravity models has been almost completely agreed in the past decade. Therefore, this article studies the estimation of the impact of the Poisson Pseudo-Maximum Likelihood (PPML) on the trade facilitation of its 21 trading partner countries from 2008 to 2016. Enabling Trade Index (ETI) includes four sub-indexes: market access, border management, transportation and communications infrastructure, and operating environment. The results show that Enabling Trade Indices such as market access, border management, infrastructure, and operating environment in the country of origin and export destination countries have had a positive and significant impact on trade flows between Iran and its trading partners. In addition, the results show that the importance and intensity of Iran’s enabling trade indicators are higher than similar measures taken by its trading partners. The authors interpret it as explaining the important role of enabling trade policies in increasing trade between Iran and its trading partners.

Economists emphasize the endogenous and exogenous causes of the bank deferrals related to loan repayment. Whereas banking experts classify the causes of loan default as external and internal organizational factors. According to targets of article 2 of the agricultural bank of Iran the Statute (2020), this bank should provide credit facilities for a better life in the countryside, increase the income level of villagers, increase agricultural production, develop SMEs located in rural areas, and participation in related activities. Therefore, to achieve the goals of providing financial resources, it is important how the resources are absorbed and how they are returned. Studies by Hassanzade and Habibi (2010), Shabani and Jalali (2012), and Bafandeh et al. (2015) regarding the crisis of bank deferrals in Iran indicate that the role of indigenous factors is more decisive than exogenous factors. The study Arabmazar and Roeintan (2013) is dedicated to non-timely repayment of bank facilities have most important to bank deferrals than other factors. Most of Iran's bank deferrals studies paid attention only to exiguous factors and did not pay enough attention to endogenous factors. As observed, recent research has considered the important factors of this bank deferrals problem, but none of them work on the interest factor as a crucial factor, and we must address this in this study.

Theoretical frame work:

In the theoretical section, we draw Minsky's theory concerning bank deferral and financial crisis to provide a theoretical for identifying the factors that have influenced the improvement of loan repayment. Goldsmith (1969) and (1973), McKinnon, and Shaw (1973) argued for financial liberalization versus financial repression. The common denominator in these studies is focused on financial liberalization; setting a ceiling for interest rates inevitably leads to a small constraint on the credit system that the result is a low level of saving and investment.  In contrast, Minsky (1995:1) mentioned that in the post-second World war period, the OECD could control the rate of interest instead of money supply and achieve "the golden age of capitalism".  

Multiple logit regression (MNLR) is simply a generalized or extended dual logit regression with more explanatory variables. In other words, we want to investigate the simultaneous effects of several independent variables on the dependent variable y. MNLR regression is also known as multiple and multi-state logit because it is used to model the relationship between a multi-state response variable and a set of independent variables. A multi-state response variable can be a sequential variable or a nominal variable.                      

Since 1936 there has been a serious debate among Keynesian and Walrasian economists on the role of money and finance. Walrasian economists reject the finance dominance of capitalist economies. While, Mineski (1995: 3), upon on the modern version of the Walrasian of general equilibrium theory, ignores the finance dominance of capitalist economies. If economic theory is to be relevant for the intense finance world in which we live, it fully incorporates financial factors into determining the economy's behavior in the economy. Such a theory should not hold that financial factors are "exogenous shocks" to the economy or explain whatever malfunctioning an economic theory economy is. Money and finance as nominal variables do not play a dominant role in the preferences, commodities, and services of the economy resulting from the incompetence of central bankers.

Result and Suggestions:

Our finding on the empirical sector shows disagreement among economists about the impact of interest rates on bank deferrals. The relationship between loan size and the amount of loan deferral penalty is another of the most challenging issues among theoreticians of loan and credit. Our study results on variables of repayment and extension loan have a significant and negative effect on improving the bank repayment, which in this regard is consistent with the study of Ferdowsipur et al. (2013). Other findings indicate a direct relationship between interest rates and default of loans on the one hand and the number of installments in the improvements of payment of bank claims on the other hand, which is consistent with Ashraghi et al. (2015), Makorere (2014) and Ferdowsipur et al. (2013).

Access to finance plays a key role in developing small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and entrepreneurial activities. Despite the critical role in economic growth and entrepreneurial activities, access to finance is the main problem. Better access to financial resources for a company's formation or development leads to better allocation of production resources, leading to rapid economic growth. Given the various theories about the factors influencing access to finance, there is still a lack of a systematic view of the factors affecting finance access. It implies that research areas are not yet saturated in this research field. Policymakers, therefore, need to understand the impact of various factors on access to finance for policymakers. This study aims to identify the factors for entrepreneurial activities that affect access to finance. To this end, 139 articles (Persian and English) on the factors affecting access to finance for entrepreneurial activities are reviewed using the systematic review of experimental and theoretical literature. Resources are then grouped into two internal and external factors categories. The results showed that the external factors included bank concentration, financial performance, debt conditions (interest rates, leverage and repayment periods), macroeconomic volatility, corruption, and companies' geography and knowledge asymmetry. Additionally, internal factors include entrepreneurial characteristics (age, gender, education, entrepreneurship and network of experience), company characteristics (life span of the company, size of the company, type of company and property, plant and equipment) and financial management practices of the company (financial information, business plan, and capital budgeting and management of working capital). This study's results enable policymakers to have effective strategies to promote access to business finance and enable entrepreneurs to recognize their strengths and limitations in accessing finance.

In the existing literature on entrepreneurship, there are various approaches to determining the factors affecting entrepreneurial activity, which can be explained in various disciplines of science. As an interdisciplinary study, entrepreneurship consists of aspects of economic, historical, psychological, political, social and cultural studies. All of these studies focus on entrepreneurship from different points of views. Since entrepreneurship is recognized as an appropriate tool for stimulating economic growth, increasing innovation and productivity and reduction of poverty, identification of determinants of entrepreneurial activity allows appropriate policies to increase productivity and economic growth in a single economy. Due to the wide range of factors which affecting entrepreneurial activities among countries, several studies have examined various factors affecting it. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the economic factors affecting entrepreneurial activities at the macro level, which, given the literature available in this field, has a greater impact than other factors. The present study was conducted using descriptive analysis, literature reviews and collecting library resources such as books and theoretical and applied entrepreneurship papers. Finally, the collected resources were classified into two categories of supply and demand factors. The factors on the supply side include economic development, technological development, globalization, direct foreign investment and financial development, and demand factors include education, population growth, population density, income level, income gap, access to finance, Tax, labor market flexibility rules, political structure, immigration, unemployment rate, institutional characteristics and macroeconomic environment.

The main purpose of this article is to examine the impact of access to finance on the process of entrepreneurial activity in 66 selected developing and developed countries over the period 2018–2008. The research method is applied by purpose, and by data collection, is descriptive-correlational; to this end, the research data from international statistical reports based on survey data, economic indicators and entrepreneurship rates of countries They were extracted. The modeling of the research was performed using two criteria of venture capital and bank credit as indicators of access to finance through the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) approach with STATA14 software. The results indicate a stronger and more positive impact of access to finance on entrepreneurial activities in developing countries. Also, bank lending to boost new and emerging entrepreneurial activity has been more acceptable than venture capital, which could be due to the bank-centric financing of entrepreneurial firms in developing countries. Account. In addition, the positive impact of understanding entrepreneurship capability as an indicator of human capital on access to finance has been another finding of the study. Therefore, policymakers, while trying to develop entrepreneurship, must simultaneously adopt policies to increase entrepreneurial capability and prioritize ease of access to finance.

Competitiveness is a key measure for assessing the degree to which countries are successful in creating employment, improving the business environment and creating entrepreneurial activities. Competitiveness in this study has been measured based on Global Economic Forum database and Entrepreneurial activities using the Global Entrepreneurship Index (GEI) over the period 2016-2012. Emperical results, using panel data with fixed effects, showed that the competitiveness pillars, including technological readiness, higher education, infrastructure, institutions and innovation, negatively and merely market size positively affected the entrepreneurial process in resource-based countries. In efficiency-driven countries, only market size has not had a significant effect. Among other factors, labor market performance and infrastructure have negatively affected the entrepreneurial process in these countries, and the impact of other pillars has been positive. Finally, the efficiency of the labor market, financial market development, institutions, market size, technological readiness, higher education and innovation have affected the process of entrepreneurship in innovation-oriented countries. In general, the results of model estimation indicate that the impact of competitiveness factors on the level of entrepreneurial activity in different countries varies according to the stage of development of countries. In general, the results of model estimation indicate that the impact of competitiveness factors on the level of entrepreneurial activity in different countries varies according to the stage of development of countries.

Classical economists saw growth as the result of the interaction of economic factors and their rational choice in a competitive environment. Although these economists played attention on the role of institutions in economic growth, but the explicit attention to the impact of institutions on economic performance should be attributed to the late nineteenth century and the publication of the book, The theory of the Leisure class, by Torsten-Vebln's. With the reappearance of endogenous growth models in the 1980s and the importance of human capital, serious attention paid to the role of institutions in economic growth theories. It seems that the reason for this long-term interruption in the entry of institutions into economic growth models has attributed to recognition and the way of influencing, because the impact of institutions usually is indirect on growth, and this effect carried out through various channels, including entrepreneurship. This research studied for the first time on the effects of rule of law and control of corruption (formal institutional factors) as well as fears of failure and conception of entrepreneurial ability (informal institutional factors) on entrepreneurship in the case of MENA countries during 2008-2015. Using panel data and three-stage least squares method (3SLS), we find that the rule of law and corruption control has a positive and significant effect and fear of failure has a negative and significant relationship with entrepreneurship. In addition, conception entrepreneurial ability has no positive and significant effect on entrepreneurship and ultimately entrepreneurship has had a positive effect on economic growth.
JEL classification: O11, O17, O43

Undoubtedly, growth, inflation, and unemployment are the most important macroeconomic indicators that have determinant effect on all other economic indicators. One of the important attributes of these variables is their close
relationship with one another and they are just neutral numbers that need to be interpreted. The Present article in the framework of literature of political economy of inflation challenges the traditional hypothesis: "Inflation enriches the rich and makes the poor poorer. The crisis of the 1930s created a Keynesian revolution that it offered a macroeconomic revolution which like classical economics and Marx was a class-based one and the Phillips curve that inspired by such a revolution. The Phillips curve confirmed the trade of between inflation and unemployment, which this relationship was remained for more than two  decades at the top of the economic plans of the advanced capitalist countries as a manifesto. The phenomenon of stagflation showed that the Phillips hypothesis was only statistically correct and not as a theory. In such a space, the advent of the revolution of the rational expectations of macroeconomics, which insisted on the "Non accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU), kept out the Keynesian macroeconomic. Since the 1990s, economic literature changed their approach toward inflation targeting models that have looked at both of them, the Philips curve and NAIRU, in an effort to explain the relationship between inflation and growth. This paper, with a descriptive-analytical approach, shows that the land reform of the 1960s in Iran the liberalized of labor and capital surpluses from the agricultural sector to the industrial sector due to the emergence of a powerful industrial capitalism and its emergence versus commercial capitalism. We think the nature of the economy Political inflation in Iran has been shaped the land reform. From the adjustment policy so far, inflation control has always been a priority in economic policy. Our impression of domestic and foreign inflation studies suggests that the relationship between inflation and growth can be positive and the effect of inflation on poverty and inequality is a U-shaped elationship.

While there has been many cases for and against Structural Adjustment Programme we found, however, that Less attention being paid to its political economic aspect.In this paper we show that many of present political economy challenges that country of Iran is facing such as growth, redidtribution and democracy, have their roots in structural adjustment programme.This, ofcourse, has been facilitated by the nature of the then governments during 1989-2017.After discussing this subject, we shall analyse the financial liberalisation followed.In the third sectioin, the trickle down effects of the programme would be discussed. We shall look at the the impact that this programme had on labour through labour laws and regulations in section four and finally , in section five, we shall conclude our study.

Type II diabetes is known as one of the most important, prevalent, and expensive diseases of mankind. Late diagnosis and subsequent delayed initiation of treatment or surveillance of patients create a variety of problems for affected individuals. This has raised increasing concerns for public health authorities throughout the world. In the current study, we aimed to find a new approach for early identification of high-risk individuals at initial months of their life. This allows us to take preventive measures as early as possible.
In our study, 102 infants - from one to six months - were selected and placed in two case and control groups. The case group contained 52 babies with at least one of their parents identified as a type II diabetic patient. The control group comprised 50 babies with no family history of type II diabetes in paternal and maternal first-degree relatives. Afterwards, the expression level of insulin gene was analyzed in white blood cells of both groups. Information related to infants - referred to outpatient and inpatient wards of three main pediatric hospitals placed in Tehran - and their parents were collected through questionnaires within a two-year period. The study inclusion criteria for infants were confirmed type II diabetes in at least one of their parents, the absence of any metabolic disorder, and the absence of any disturbing vital signs. After drawing 2 ml of babies’ peripheral blood, total RNA of white blood cells (WBC) was extracted, and used for cDNA synthesis. Real-Time PCR was then applied to quantitatively evaluate the expression levels of insulin gene. The results of Real-Time PCR were statistically analyzed by non-parametric tests of Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis.
The expression of insulin gene was observed in white blood cells of all samples. However, there was a significant difference in expression levels between case and control groups (p0.05).
Numerous genes contribute to the development of diabetes and novel disease-causing genes are increasingly being discovered. Identification of disease-prone individuals through examining merely one underlying gene is complicated and challenging. Interestingly, all of these abnormally functioning genes finally manifest themselves in the altered expression levels of insulin gene. The expression status of insulin gene in WBCs could be suggested as a useful approach for identification of individuals at high risk for developing diabetes. This paves the way for taking appropriate measures at infancy period in order to prevent the disease as well as inhibit its various side effects in the following years of patient’s life.