saeed shariati

Cyberspace, characterized by its unique features such as being borderless, has expanded the possibility of norm violations to all corners of the world. The purpose of this study is to examine the imposition of civil liability on multiple causes of harm in cyberspace under Iranian law. The research method is descriptive-analytical, relying on library resources. In Iranian law, given the absence of a specific mechanism for the emergence of civil liability in cyberspace, civil liability can be imposed equally or jointly on multiple causes based on traditional and general civil liability doctrines, particularly considering the element of fault. In the case of multiple successive causes in both cyberspace and the real world, the research findings indicate that, although there are similarities, the principles and elements of civil liability in cyberspace often differ from those in the real world due to the involvement of multiple actors and internet intermediaries. Civil liability for multiple successive causes in cyberspace differs from that in the real world, with the default being the theory of customary cause, while for multiple concurrent causes, the default is shared liability. Regarding judicial practice on the distribution of liability in the case of multiple causes in cyberspace, it can be said that judicial practice distinguishes the distribution of liability in cyberspace depending on the actors involved. For natural persons, the default is customary liability based on fault, while for legal entities and internet intermediaries, the default is strict liability, without the requirement of fault.

Despite nullifying the concept of Qīyās (analogy),the jurists of Imamiya have no disagreement over the validity for “consistent meaning” and Qiyas al-awlawiyya (a fortiori qiyas) and believe it is permissible to generalize the ruling to non-specific issue because of its priority. However, regarding the interpretation of criminal laws, the main question which is raised here is: how valid is the concept of consistent meaning with regard to the legality of the crime and punishment principle and the interpretation in favor of the defendant?
It seems that wherever this concept is believed by the common statutes  to be part of connotative meaning of the word and attributing it to the legislatures does not require contemplating upon the reason behind the ruling and the priority of the trifling issue in the reason for the ruling, we can accept the “consistent meaning” in criminal statutes  . However, in some cases where the judge tries to generalize the law to  trifling cases through discovering the philosophy of punishment and prudence meant by the legislator to escape punishment, this does not match the legality of the crime and punishment and interpreting the law to the benefit of the defendant and also the “consistent meaning”.

As a tourism target site in the west of Mashhad¡ Kang has always been an attractive area for tourists. This case study aims at describing and analyzing Kangians perception of tourism and its grounding factors utilizing qualitative method and interpretive paradigm. A sample of 27 Kang residents was chosen using theoretical sampling method and snowball technique. The required data was gathered through deep interview. The triple steps ptocedure of encoding (open¡ axial and selective) of data usual in grounded theory was conducted on interview texts. In order to achieve the final theoretical model¡ the categories were classified in causal¡ contextual¡ intervening¡ interactive and consequential groupings. The texts thematic analysis showed that tourists have created deep changes in different aspects of local people life. From the residents point of view¡ although tourism has brought economic and¡ to some extent¡ social benefits to their hometown¡ but vast negative social¡ cultural and environmental consequences have been resulted from tourism development as well. Consequently¡ Kangians¡ as a traditional society have a conflicting attitude toward tourism. On the one hand they are concerned about their cultural values and nature¡ on the other hand. They welcome tourists due to the income they earn trough tourism. We believe that¡ despite adverse socioeconomic effects of tourism¡ economic benefits from tourists will decrease the importance and influence social norms and¡ along with structural development¡ will bring tourism boom.