samira heydarian

During the last three decades, financial sanctions have been imposed on Iran by the United States, the European Union, and the United Nations Security Council. This paper aims at estimating the effect of financial sanctions on the import of capital and intermediate goods in Iran, which was carried out for two independent time periods. The first period (2010-2013) includes multilateral financial sanctions, and the second period (2016-2019) includes multilateral sanctions and the withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA. We examined the impact using the difference-in-difference (DID) method. The results of the first period indicate that the decrease in the imports of capital and intermediate goods in Iran depends more on the countries that "provided the sanctions plan" than the countries that did not provide the sanctions plan, because the coefficient of dummy variable for implementation in the random effects model is statistically significant. The negative effect of 0.007 on imports shows that the effect is weak, because this group of countries behaved differently. In the second period, the random effects model is statistically significant. In this model, the negetive effect of 0.22 on imports indicates a significant effect. Therefore, the reduction of Iran's imports in this period depends more on the countries that provided the sanctions plan than the countries that did not provide the plan.

To determine the distribution of macular thickness and macular volume in an elderly healthy population 60 years of age and above and their determinants.

The sampling was performed using a multistage stratified random cluster sampling method on the geriatric population 60 years of age and above in Tehran, Iran. All participants underwent optometric examinations, slit‑lamp examination, and optical biometry. Retinal imaging was performed by spectral‑domain optical coherence tomography.

The means ± standard deviation and 95% confidence interval of central macular thickness (CMT), average macular thickness (AMT), and macular volume were 221 ± 33 (218–223) μm, 267 ± 29 (265–269) μm, and 8.36 ± 0.44 (8.33–8.39) mm3, respectively. The CMT was significantly lower in females than males (β: −5.77; P = 0.002). The AMT was significantly lower in females than males (β = −10.32; P < 0.001) and was significantly directly related to intraocular pressure (β = 0.63; P = 0.038). The macular volume was significantly lower in females than males (β = −0.13; P < 0.001) and decreased with age (β = −0.01; P < 0.001). In addition, the macular volume had a significant inverse and direct relationship with axial length (β = −0.04; P = 0.011) and keratometry (β = 0.03; P < 0.001).

Macular thickness in the Iranian geriatric population was slightly less than the populations studied in other countries. The role of sex should also be taken into account in the interpretation of macular thickness findings.

Premature birth is common worldwide and can affect the development of brain structures, such as the optic nerve. Eye diseases are very common in low birth weight children and premature children. Vision defects associated with premature birth include Retinopathy of premature babies (ROP), decreased visual acuity, strabismus, amblyopia, and various types of refractive errors. Studies have shown that the occurrence of myopia in children born prematurely is negatively correlated with gestational age and birth weight and is directly related to the severity of retinopathy of prematurity(ROP). Advances in neonatal intensive care unit services have led to a significant increase in the survival rate of premature infants and subsequent medical problems in these children. This study was designed to determine the prevalence of refractive errors in 4-6-year-old children born with a birth weight of less than 2000 grams and gestational age of less than 34 weeks and normal children admitted to the neonatal department of Bou-Ali Sina Hospital in Sari in 2016-2018.

This study was a cross-sectional descriptive study on 43 children aged 4-6 years who were born with a weight of less than 2000 grams and gestational age of less than 34 weeks, and 17 normal children who were admitted in the neonatal department of Bou-Ali Sina Hospital due to neonatal jaundice. The study subjects were in four groups: 12 subjects in group A (ROP cases without injection), 14 subjects in group B (ROP cases with injection), 17 subjects in group C (cases with birth weight less than 2000 grams and gestational age less than 34 weeks without ROP), and 17 normal subjects in group D. Uncorrected distance visual acuity was measured using E-chart. Dry and cyclo refraction (using cyclopentolate 1%) were measured using an autorefractometer. Finally, the fundus was examined using a biomicroscope and 90 diopter lens. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 26.

of the 60 studied subjects, 46.67% were females and 53.33% were males, and there was no significant difference in the prevalence of the two sexes between the groups (P=0.146). In total, 12.1% of the studied subjects were myopie, 34.5% were emmetrope, and 53/4% were hypermetrope. Although the prevalence of hypermetropia was higher than other types of refractive errors in all groups, the prevalence of myopia was higher in those with ROP than in groups without ROP, and there was a significant difference in the prevalence of refractive errors in different groups (P=0.025). There was no significant difference between the prevalence of the different types of astigmatism in the studied groups (P=0.304) and with the rule astigmatism was the most common type among all groups. There was a significant and direct relationship between gestational age and birth weight with cyclo-equivalent sphere, which means that the lesser gestational age (P=0.356, r=0.006) and birth weight (P=0.002, r=0.387), the higher the probability of myopia.

Considering the higher prevalence of myopia in low birth weight children, especially in children with ROP, it is necessary to formulate a regular program to screen this category of children to prevent refractive errors, especially myopia in the future.

Refractive errors are among the most common causes of vision loss in patients attending healthcare facilities in the first and second decades of life. Astigmatism stands out as one of the common and treatable causes of vision loss in pediatrics. 

In this cross-sectional study, the samples were chosen by random cluster sampling among children aged between 7 and 13 years from elementary schools in 2014-2015 academic year. For all students, refractive errors were assessed by Autorefractor Keratometer and retinoscopy. Internal astigmatism was defined as the difference between refractory and corneal astigmatism. SPSS software, version 16 was used for data analysis.

A total of 1009 children participated in the study. Among them, 468(46.4%) were male, and 541(53.6%) were female. Their mean age was 9.2±1.7 years. About 14.5% of them had refractory astigmatism. Corneal astigmatism was the most common type, with 12.5% of students suffering from it. The prevalence of corneal astigmatism was not significantly different between males and females (P=0.19). Also, there was no significant relationship between increasing age and prevalence of astigmatism in this age group (P=0.06).

There was no significant difference in the rate of refractory astigmatism, lenticular and corneal astigmatism, between males and females. Because correcting refractory errors in students has a positive effect on learning ability and physical and mental development, screening and follow-up are recommended in this age group.

This study aims to design a conceptual model for the effect of various factors on walking ability, participation, and quality of life in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy (SDCP) and test it based on field data using path analysis.

This cross-sectional study was performed on 181 children with SDCP. The following were used to measure each of the variables: the Modified Ashworth Scale, the Micro Manual Muscle Tester, the Timed Up and Go Test (TUG), the Boyd and Graham test, the goniometer, weight and height, the Gross Motor Function Classification System, the Life Habits Questionnaire, and cerebral palsy Quality of Life Questionnaire for Children. The structural model was tested in Amos 17.

All paths of the proposed model were significant (P <0.05). Among evaluated variables, muscle strength (B = -0.466), balance (B = 0.326), and spasticity (B = 0.143) affected walking ability. Moreover, as an intermediate factor, walking ability affected the subjects’ participation (B = -0.819) and quality of life (B = -0.183).

Muscle strength, balance, and spasticity are the most influential factors in the walking ability of children with SDCP. Furthermore, walking ability and participation are two critical factors in promoting the quality of life of these children.

The paper aims to examine the impact of financial sanctions on capital inflow and outflow in Iran. The research question is about examining the effect of financial sanctions on FDI inflow and capital outflow in Iran. We used the intervention model as an econometric method to estimate the impact during 2005-2019. The paper discussed three periods. From 2005 to 2010, severe financial sanctions negatively affected FDI, and capital outflow was positive. From 2011 to 2015, severe and multilateral financial sanctions were implemented, adversely affecting FDI. There is a positive relationship between financial sanctions and capital outflow. In the third period, i.e., 2016-2019, when financial sanctions and implementation of JCPOA and the withdrawal of the United States happened, the overall effect on FDI inflow is negative. Although Iran absorbed about $2 billion of FDI, with the withdrawal of the United States from JCPOA and the return of secondary U.S. sanctions, the reduction of FDI happened again. On capital outflow, the sanction has a positive effect on capital outflow. Altogether, during 2005-2019, financial sanctions adversely affected FDI inflow and increased capital outflow in Iran.

Visual impairment makes individuals dependent on tools in their daily activities. Home modifications are one of the important methods for increasing the independence of individuals with visual impairments as all individuals frequently interact with their home environment in their everyday lives. This study was an endeavor to develop the Home Modification and Improvement Questionnaire for visually impaired people and study its psychometric characteristics".

A cross-sectional study of questionnaire development and validation was conducted. The structure of the questionnaire was completed in 3 stages, defining the structure, creating items, and determining the format. The instrument was validated in the 3 stages of assessing the items, checking the face, content, and structural validity, and reliability of the retest-test, and performing a pilot study of the instrument. Exploratory factor analysis was performed to calculate the validity of the construct. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test was used for factor analysis and the correlation between questions was evaluated using Bartlett's test.

Exploratory factor analysis with varimax rotation yielded 3 factors (light, color, and home architecture) with eigenvalues of greater than 1 and factor loadings of greater than 0.3. Cronbach's alpha coefficients (index of internal consistency) of the scales of performance, knowledge, and attitude were 0.81, 0.88, and 0.69, respectively (P ≤ 0.001). The intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs), as the measure of test-retest reliability, of the scales of performance, knowledge, and attitude were 0.82, 0.87, and 0.78, respectively.

Living comfortably at home for low vision individuals requires the consideration of the 3 elements of light, color, and home architecture and establishment of a planned and organized atmosphere. The current questionnaire can be utilized as a quantitative tool to evaluate the attitude, knowledge, and performance of this population's families in terms of their contribution to addressing the needs of this population.

This study aimed to evaluate the distribution of contrast sensitivity (CS) using Pelli Robson test in normal individuals over seven years old living in Zahedan and examine its relationship with age, gender, and refractive errors.

In this cross-sectional study, simple sampling was performed on the patients aged over seven years and their attendants who had referred to Al-Zahra eye hospital in Zahedan. Complete ophthalmic examinations including vision and refraction assessment, biomicroscopy, and CS evaluation were carried out for all subjects. To evaluate CS, Pelli Robson chart was used at a distance of one meter. The logarithmic CS value of the last triplet in which the patient could accurately read two words was regarded as his/her CS value.

Of the 150 patients (300 eyes), 70 (46.66%) were male. The mean age of the subjects was 34.56±16.15 years (ranged from seven to 78 years). The mean and standard deviation of the CS score in two modes of monocular and binocular vision were 1.45±0.19 and 1.57±0.19 log unit, respectively. The mean CS score was not significantly different between men and women (P>0.454), but it decreased significantly with the age (P=0.000). CS was higher in individuals with emmetropia than those with myopia and hypermetropia (P=0.000). There was also a significant correlation between cylinder magnitude and CS (P=0.000).

Although Pelli Robson test evaluates CS at low and constant spatial frequencies, its distribution is significantly different among different age groups and even among individuals with different values of refractive errors.

Enormous workrelated pressure following COVID19 pandemic might lead to a decline in persistence and commitment to the organization among nurses.

This study aimed to determine factors influencing job retention and organizational commitment among Iranian nurses working during COVID19 pandemic. Setting and Design: This descriptivecorrelational study was performed between April and May 2020 in Imam Khomeini educational hospital, Sari, Iran.

All nurses worked in COVID19 wards were invited to participate in our study, of whom 172 accepted to participate in the present study. The inclusion criteria were nurses working in the COVID19 wards of Imam Khomeini Hospital and willingness to participate in the study. Data were gathered through three questionnaires: demographic characteristics, Anticipated Turnover Scale, and Allen organizational commitment. Effect of age, gender, level of education, marital status, work shifts, and work experience were evaluated with both variables. Statistical Analysis Used: The collected data were analyzed in SPSS software (version 16) using statistical tests such as Pearson's correlation, independent sample ttest, oneway ANOVA, and linear regression analysis.

The mean ± standard deviation of job retention and organizational commitment were 37.70 ± 3.35 and 75.96 ± 8.37, respectively. Job retention and organizational commitment were positively and significantly correlated with each other (P < 0.001, r = 0.33). Of evaluated factors, the only factor that had a positive and significant relationship with job retention (P = 0.04, F = 1.22) and organizational commitment was working experience (P = 0.04, F = 2.89).

To assess contrast sensitivity in clear and colored soft contact lenses under different lighting conditions.

This study was performed on 34 medical students. Visual acuity was measured using a tumbling E chart at a distance of 6 m, and contrast sensitivity was determined by Pelli Robson chart at a distance of 1 m. These tests were repeated in mesopic (3 lux) and glare (2000 lux) conditions. Then, a clear contact lens was applied to one eye and a colored contact lens was applied to the other. After 2 hr, visual acuity and contrast sensitivity were measured for each individual. The results were compared with and without contact lenses under normal, mesopic, and glare conditions.

The mean refractive error was 0.44 ± 0.20 diopters. Repeated measures ANOVA showed a decline in contrast sensitivity with colored and clear contact lenses as compared to no-lens condition (P < 0.001). Additionally, lighting conditions had a significant impact on contrast sensitivity (P < 0.001); contrast sensitivity was lower in mesopic and glare conditions than under normal lighting condition.

In addition to the drop in contrast sensitivity under unusual lighting conditions (e.g., glare and mesopic), wearing soft contact lenses can further reduce contrast sensitivity in different lighting conditions. Therefore, people who wear contact lenses should be aware of this reduction in visual performance in conditions like driving at night or in the fog.

To determine and compare ocular characteristics and refractive errors between thalassemia major patients and normal subjects.

In this study, 71 thalassemia major patients and 79 age and sex matched healthy subjects that were selected in an ongoing manner underwent complete optometric and ophthalmic examinations including auto refraction, subjective refraction, fluorescein tear break- up time, and pachymetry after anthropometric measurements.

The results showed that the mean UCVA was better in the control group versus the thalassemia group (p<0.001) while there was no difference in BCVA between the two groups (p=0.416). Moreover, the mean spherical equivalent was 0.38±0.13 D less in the thalassemia group compared to the control group (p=0.007) while corneal power (p<0.001) and cylinder power (p=0.001) were larger in thalassemia patients. Most common type of astigmatism was against the rule pattern in thalassemia patients and with the rule pattern in the control group (p<0.001). The mean tear break-up time was 11.35 ± 6.43 in the thalassemia group and 14.63 ± 5.79 in the control group (p=0.001), and the mean near point of accommodation (NPA) (p=0.009) and near point of convergence (NPC). (p=0.003) were significantly smaller in the thalassemia group compared to the control group.

These patients suffer from a myopic shift due to exaggerated responses to changes in ocular growth, dry eye secondary to goblet cell loss, and a higher prevalence of vertical astigmatism due to eyelid laxity and pressure on the cornea. Therefore, regular ophthalmological evaluations are highly recommended in these patients.

In recent years, the use of financial sanctions has been unprecedented. Financial sanctions aim to exert economic pressure in order to change the political behavior and the performance of governments under sanction. The economic sanctions were imposed on Iran's economy in 2006, and further restrictions were put on Iran's access to the financial network of the United States. The financial sanctions were intensified in 2011 under the pretext of nuclear and human rights issues. Sanctions also reduced the share of capital expenditures in the budget and the government expenditures for safety net. When the government faced a budget deficit and the imports became more expensive, the resulting inflation increased the cost of living for the low-income groups. Therefore, financial sanctions adversely affected the poor due to the disruption of financial flows. Generally, during sanctions, the government budget deficit can deteriorate income inequality. Sanctions can not only block the financial transactions of a country and deter investments but also pose trade barriers; it leads to increased challenges in paying for exports and imports. Financial sanctions also affect imports because they impede the transfer of money, which leads to a shortage of one or more goods. In these circumstances, the sanctioned country tries to replace the import of goods from other countries in order to circumvent the sanctions; But this also causes a shortage of goods and increases their prices. Thus, economic sanctions reduce the supply of necessary goods. Rising prices, especially commodity and food prices, in turn, can increase inequality. Sanctions reduce the import of health and pharmaceutical products, and, as a result, citizens' access to these goods is reduced; most of all, the vulnerable segments of the population are affected, especially women, children and the elderly people. Sanctions on imports through capital goods and intermediaries reduce domestic production, employment and income, which leads to an increase in absolute poverty and a reduction in exports of labor-intensive goods. This, in turn, reduces the level of income and employment in the target country and leads to increased inequality. In Iran, the decline in non-oil exports happened by the above-mentioned mechanism. in addition to it, there occurred reductions in oil exports and the government foreign exchange revenues. Sanctions have strong effects on economic aspects, including reduced government investment, depreciated exchange rates, declined government spending and possibly reduced safety net payments. These changes can increase inequality.

We examined the impact of financial sanctions on income inequality in Iran over the period of 1991-2017. To this end, we used a Factor Augmented Vector Auto-Regression (FAVAR) model with time varying parameters (TVP). We utilized MATLAB 2016 to estimate the econometric model. FAVAR models with time-varying parameters provide an estimate of the financial sanctions proxy variable (oil revenues) and then indicate the response functions in the foreign debts of the central bank, liquidity, economic growth, informal exchange rates, inflation and unemployment.

Iran's economy has been exposed to economic shocks emanating from financial sanctions and represented by a proxy that shows the oil revenues fluctuation. A corresponding model was used to provide an analysis of the impacts of the financial sanctions on the Gini coefficient. Over time, due to the changes in the coefficients of the variables in the FAVAR structural model, it was possible to analyze the effects of the shock on the economic conditions using time-varying parameters (TVPs).

Nonlinear behavior indicates the effectiveness of variables on the Gini coefficient. Thus, economic growth improves the Gini coefficient over time, but the other variables adversely affect it. Given that the financial sanctions adversely affected the inflation rate, exchange rate and unemployment as well as increased the foreign debts of the central bank, it can be concluded that the sanctions aggravated the Gini coefficient and increased income inequality. In fact, the increasing financial sanctions prevented the transfer of oil revenues and the import of staple goods. It also raised the inflation rate which led to the higher inequality of income distribution. Therefore, the sanctions adversely affected the Gini coefficient and inequality in Iran.

To determine the distribution of keratometry values in a wide age range of 6-90 years.

In this cross-sectional study, samples were selected from two villages in Iran using multi-stage random cluster sampling. After completing optometry and ophthalmic examinations for all cases, corneal imaging was done using Pentacam, and keratometry values were determined.

Of the 3851 selected people, 3314 people participated in the study, and after applying the exclusion criteria, analyses were done on data from 2672 people. Mean age of the participants was 36.30 ± 18.51 years (from 6 to 90 years). Mean keratometry (mean‑K) in flat and steep meridians was 42.98 (42.9‑43.06) diopters (D) and 43.98 (43.91‑44.07) D, respectively. Average of mean‑K was 43.48 (43.41‑43.56) D. Mean‑K increased linearly up to the age of 70 years, and the cornea became slightly flat afterwards (coefficient = 0.01; P < 0.001). Mean‑K was significantly higher in females (P < 0.001). Myopic cases had the highest mean‑K (P < 0.001). The correlation of mean‑K with age, gender, central corneal thickness, anterior chamber depth, pupil diameter, and spherical equivalent was investigated in a multiple regression model. Only older age and female gender showed a statistically significant association with mean‑K. Overall, 31.62% (29.14‑34.09) of the sample in this study had at least 1.0 D of corneal astigmatism.

This is one of the few studies worldwide that demonstrates changes in keratometry in a wide age range from childhood to old age. Results indicated that age and gender are variables associated with keratometry

In the present study, the authors examined the impact of financial sanctions on economic growth using Iran's data and intervention time-series analysis over the period 2005-2017. Financial sanctions targeted the country's financial resources and increased interest rates and medium- and long-term financing costs. In general, financial sanctions adversely affected the financial sector. In this regard, blocking of assets and restricted access to financial and foreign exchange resources, depreciated domestic currency, reduced investment, exports, and production along with increased inflation and unemployment ultimately reduced economic growth. The results indicated the effectiveness of financial sanctions on economic growth in the short-run. However, during the third period (2010-2014), when severe and multilateral financial sanctions are imposed, the coefficient is negative (0.54), which is higher, compared to the other periods. As the economic sanctions of Iran have intensified, the economic growth has slowed down. Nevertheless, in the long run, financial sanctions have had a weaker negative effect of 0.19 on the economic growth.

To determine the distribution of residual and corneal astigmatism (CA) in children aged 6–18 years and their relationship with age, sex, spherical equivalent, and biometric parameters.

In this cross‑sectional study, multi‑stage stratified cluster sampling was done to select students from Dezful, a city in Southwestern Iran. Examinations included the measurement of visual acuity with and without optical correction, refraction with and without cycloplegia, and biometry using the Biograph (Lenstar, Germany). The main outcomes in this report were corneal and residual astigmatism. The CA was measured by Biograph (difference between k1 and k2), and residual astigmatism was calculated using Alpine method. The power vector method was applied to analyze the data of astigmatism.

Of 864 students that were selected, 683 (79.1%) participated in the study. The mean residual and CA were −0.84 diopter (D) and −0.85 D, respectively. According to the results of J0 and J45 vectors, residual astigmatism was −0.33 D and 0.04 D, and CA was 0.38 D and 0.01 D, respectively. With‑the‑rule (WTR), against‑the‑rule (ATR), and oblique astigmatism were seen in 3.4%, 66.8%, and 4.5% of the children with residual astigmatism and 67.94%, 1.3%, and 1.5% of the children with CA. Residual astigmatism decreased with an increase in spherical refractive error, whereas CA increased with an increase in spherical refractive error.

The results of the present study showed a high prevalence and amount of residual astigmatism with ATR pattern among the 6–18‑year‑old population and the compensatory effect of this type of astigmatism on CA that mostly followed a WTR pattern.

To determine the distribution of keratoconus indices in a 5‑93‑year‑old healthy eyes of a rural population in Iran.

In this cross-sectional study, multi-stage cluster sampling was applied to select subjects from two villages in the north and southwest of Iran. After obtaining informed consent, all subjects underwent ophthalmologic and optometric examinations. Corneal imaging by the Pentacam was done in subjects above 5 years between 9 a.m. and 2 p.m., at least 3 h after wakeup. All subjects who had abnormal keratoconus indices were excluded. Our main outcome was keratometry‑flat (Kf ), keratometry-steep (Ks ), keratoconus index (KI), and central keratoconus index (CKI).

The mean ± standard deviation of Kf , Ks , KI, and CKI was 43.12 ± 1.74, 44.25 ± 1.65, 1.02 ± 0.02, and 1.01 ± 0.01, respectively. According to multiple linear regression analysis, the mean index surface variance (ISV) (b: ‑1.367, P < 0.001), index vertical asymmetry (IVA) (b: -0.012, P < 0.001), KI (b: -0.011, P < 0.001), CKI (b: -0.001, P < 0.001), index height asymmetry (IHA) (b: -0.491, P: 0.005), and index height decentration (IHD) (b: -0.001, P < 0.001) were lower in men compared to women. Moreover, age had an indirect association with ISV(b: ‑0.030, P < 0.001) and average pachymetric progression index (RPI_avg) (b: ‑0.001, P < 0.001), and a direct association with KI, CKI, and IHA. Spherical equivalence had an indirect association with KI (b: -0.001, P < 0.001) and RPI_avg (b: ‑0.004, P < 0.001) and a direct association with CKI (b: 0.001, P < 0.001). Among all variables, sex had the greatest impact on ISV, IVA, KI, IHA, IHD, and minimum sagittal curvature.

The Keratoconus indices of our study were similar to other studies. Although age, living place, and type of refractive error were associated with some indices, sex was the strongest determinant of Keratoconus indices in a population of healthy eyes.

To review current non-surgical management methods of intermittent exotropia (IXT) which is one of the most common types of childhood-onset exotropia.

Asearch strategy was developed using a combination of the words IXT, divergence excess, non-surgical management, observation, overcorrecting minus lens therapy, patch/occlusion therapy, orthoptics/binocular vision therapy, and prism therapy to identify all articles in four electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus). To find more articles and to ensure that the databases were thoroughly searched, the reference lists of the selected articles were also reviewed from inception to June 2018 with no restrictions and filters.

IXT is treated when binocular vision is impaired, or the patient is symptomatic. There are different surgical and non-surgical management strategies. Non-surgical treatment of IXT includes patch therapy, prism therapy, orthoptic sessions, and overcorrecting minus lens therapy. The objective of these treatments is to reduce the symptoms and the frequency of manifest deviation by decreasing the angle of deviation or enhancing the ability to control it.

Evidence of the efficacy of non-surgical management options for IXT is not compelling. More comprehensive randomized controlled trial studies are required to evaluate the effectiveness of these procedures and detect the most effective strategy

Since light scattering has a great impact on visual performances, this study was conducted to compare the effects of color filters and anti-reflective coating on contrast sensitivity (CS) in normal people under glare condition.

This semi-experimental study was conducted on 40 medical students (aged 19- 25 years). Ophthalmologic tests including visual acuity and refractive error measurement, biomicroscopy, fundoscopy, and CS assessment were conducted for all participants. CS was determined using Pelli-Robson chart at a distance of one meter. To measure the effect of glare on CS, we used an additional lighting source (60 W tungsten filament incandescent lamp) in the patient’s visual field. Thus, at an intensity of 2000 lux, the light source was placed at a distance of 18.5 cm from the patient’s eye in a way that it was 10 degrees above the subject’s visual axis. Monocular CS measurements were performed with and without glare. Monocular CS was evaluated again under glare conditions with the yellow and pink filters, with the transmission rate of 85%, and anti-reflective coating.

The mean log CS of subjects under glare (1.48±0.09) was lower than that in the absence of glare (1.71±0.09) (<0.001); moreover, repeated measures ANOVA showed the yellow filter (1.48±0.10), pink filter (1.47±0.10), and anti-reflective coating (1.47±0.09) had no significant impact on improving visual performance under glare condition (P=0.471).

Colored filters and anti-reflective coatings are not effective in enhancing the vision of young normal individuals under glare conditions and at low spatial frequencies.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of the travel distance of tourists on the demand for domestic tourism in Mashhad. Data used in this research was cross-sectional which includes 1388 domestic tourist families who stayed for at least one night in Mashhad City in 2005. The sample was selected using a randomized stratified sampling method and the data was gathered by an oral interview with the heads of the tourists' households and by completing the questionnaire. Using the AIDS model, income and price elasticities were calculated for six items including food, accommodation, transportation, having fun, shopping and souvenirs, and the impact of travel distance on the demand for tourist goods in Mashhad was investigated.

Oil as a raw material in the world's energy supply is of great importance,The dependence of the countries of the Middle East and advanced industrial countries on this matter and the impact of these countries' economies on oil price volatility reveal the importance of the impact of these developments.The main objective of this paper is to investigate the effect of oil price volatility on tourism demand in the years 2014-2000. The patterns studied in this study are estimated by using panel data method for OECD and Middle East countries using autoregressive conditional non-conformal variance. The variables included in the gross domestic product model, realistic exchange rate, oil price, trade liberalization index and population, per capita expenditure, and consumer price index. The results of the estimates for different countries indicate that oil prices are one of the influential variables affecting incoming tourism income, which has a significant and significant effect in OECD and Middle Eastern countries. And other model variables indirectly affect incoming tourism income.

PurposeThe aim of this study was to determine the distribution of corneal eccentricity (E-value) in a normal population and to examine related factors.
MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, two villages were selected in Iran using multistage cluster sampling. Selected persons were invited to have a comprehensive eye examination. Examinations in each village were performed at a specific location under standard conditions. After testing for vision and refraction and conducting the slit-lamp exam, E-value was measured with Pentacam.
ResultsOf the 3851 selected individuals, 3314 participated in the study. After applying the exclusion criteria, data from 2610 subjects was used in the analysis for this report. Mean E-value was 0.53 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.52 to 0.54]. E-value was not significantly different between males and females. Mean E-value reduced with age from 0.60 in subjects aged 6–20 years to 0.47 in subjects older than 70 years. The hyperopic group of participants had significantly lower E-value than myopic and emmetropic ones (P ConclusionsThe results of this study showed that the cornea in normal populations is prolate, and the degree of prolateness varies by age, such that older age is associated with a less prolate cornea. This study showed that factors such as age and refractive errors and anterior chamber indices influence the E-value.

PurposeTo determine the prevalence of uncorrected refractive errors, need for spectacles, and the determinants of unmet need in underserved rural areas of Iran.
MethodsIn a cross-sectional study, multistage cluster sampling was done in 2 underserved rural areas of Iran. Then, all subjects underwent vision testing and ophthalmic examinations including the measurement of uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA), best corrected visual acuity, visual acuity with current spectacles, auto-refraction, retinoscopy, and subjective refraction. Need for spectacles was defined as UCVA worse than 20/40 in the better eye that could be corrected to better than 20/40 with suitable spectacles.
ResultsOf the 3851 selected individuals, 3314 participated in the study. Among participants, 18.94% [95% confidence intervals (CI): 13.48–24.39] needed spectacles and 11.23% (95% CI: 7.57–14.89) had an unmet need. The prevalence of need for spectacles was 46.8% and 23.8% in myopic and hyperopic participants, respectively. The prevalence of unmet need was 27% in myopic, 15.8% in hyperopic, and 25.46% in astigmatic participants. Multiple logistic regression showed that education and type of refractive errors were associated with uncorrected refractive errors; the odds of uncorrected refractive errors were highest in illiterate participants, and the odds of unmet need were 12.13, 5.1, and 4.92 times higher in myopic, hyperopic and astigmatic participants as compared with emmetropic individuals.
ConclusionThe prevalence of uncorrected refractive errors was rather high in our study. Since rural areas have less access to health care facilities, special attention to the correction of refractive errors in these areas, especially with inexpensive methods like spectacles, can prevent a major proportion of visual impairment.

To evaluate tear film stability and optical aberrations in eyes wearing plano Lotrafilcon B contact lenses (CL).
Tear Deformation Time (TDT) and aberrometric parameters were assessed in 86 normal emmetropic eyes before and 6 h after wearing CL.
A statistically significant decrease in TDT and increase in root mean square (RMS) values of higher order aberrations (HOA) were revealed 6 h after CL insertion (both P Our findings indicated that the Lotrafilcon B contact lens affects HOA more than LOA. The tear film was less stable after wearing CL.

Background and Age related macular degeneration is the most common cause of sever visual impairment and blindness among adults over the age of 65 years in developed countries. The purpose of this study was to review the literature on using low vision aids in age related macular degeneration and their effects on their quality of life. A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus and Ovid databases was conducted to identify suitable articles published until April 2015. The search keywords included: age related macular degeneration combined by optical low vision aids, non-optical low vision aids, quality of life, preferred retinal locus, telescope, and microscope. Finally 76 articles were selected. Previous studies showed that age related macular degeneration can have profound effect on an individual’s quality of life, psychological wellbeing and ability to carry out daily tasks such as driving, face recognition, reading and so on. Although new medical treatments have improved AMD’s prognosis, but vision related disability remains a major problem and the majority of the treated patients do not regain their lost vision. So, optical devices could be used as alternative treatments to help these patients and improve their visual performance. Different low vision aids such as Implantable Miniature Telescopes are designed to help the involved patients. Many studies that were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of these systems indicated the potential benefit of optical devices for patients with age related macular degeneration in improving their quality of life.

To determine the effect of carpet weaving on refractive errors In this cross sectional study, carpet weavers and non-weavers in the normal population of Mashhad were regarded as exposed and non-exposed groups, respectively. A carpet weaver was a person who wove carpets 7 hours a day for at least 2 years. The non-weavers group was selected from the population of Mashhad through stratified cluster sampling. The variables of age, gender, education, with respect to their frequency, were matched between the two groups. In this study, 266 carpet weavers (exposed individuals) and 549 non-weavers group (non-exposed individuals) were evaluated. The prevalence of myopia was 78.9% in carpet weavers and 19.0% in non-weavers [Odds ratio (OR)=16.03, 95% confidence interval (CI)=11.13-23.09]. The prevalence of hyperopia was 6.02% in carpet weavers, and 56.75% in non-weaver group (OR=0.05, P<0.001). The prevalence of astigmatism was 39.47% in carpet weavers and 21.46% in non-weavers. The odds of against-the-rule (ATR) astigmatism was 1.72 times more in carpet weavers as compared to non-weavers (P<0.001). The results of this study showed that carpet weaving had a strong correlation with myopia. In addition to myopia, the prevalence of astigmatism, specially ATR astigmatism, was higher in carpet weavers.