taghi pournamdarian

Constructivism is one of the important theories of the 20th century that was used in different fields; From anthropology, mythology and psychoanalysis to literary studies. In the literary researches carried out in the late fourteenth century of Iran, we gradually see its use on some of the ancient Persian texts.

This research is based on the library study method following the analysis of scientific-research articles published on this topic in the seventies and eighties and the pathology of the application of the theory of constructivism on ancient texts in them.

The review of the scientific-research articles written in the mentioned time frame shows that the most important damage occurred is the lack of application of theory in many of the mentioned researches; In such a way that most of these articles - even if they have a correct understanding of the foundations and goals of the theory - can be presented in the same way by removing the title and propositions of the constructivist theory. Therefore, the theory has a redundant function in them and has been used only for the apparent validation of the research. Among the other obvious problems, we can mention things like "misunderstanding the basics of the theory", "giving originality to the theory and selecting the text in order to prove it" and "failure to obtain new results".

The use of new theories in the knowledge of ancient texts can create new capacities in the knowledge of texts, but neglecting the aforementioned damages has led to the mass production of articles that are mostly promotional and due to the lack of presenting new achievements, it also affects subsequent research. They haven"t had much.

One of the most fruitful periods of literary criticism in the history of Persian literature is the era of Indian-style poetry, in which treatises were composed specifically on literary criticism. In some tazkiras and treatises on rhetoric, there are detailed scientific criticisms and opinions, which indicate the height of literary criticism in terms of quantity and quality. Especially in the Indian subcontinent, scholarly critics like Khan Arzu and Azad Bilgrami created valuable works in rhetoric and literary criticism. Khan Arzu authored independent treatises on literary criticism, but Bilgrami’s criticisms should be searched for in his tazkiras (especially Khizanah-i Amirah) and rhetorical treatise (Ghizlan ul-Hind). Azad Bilgrami has looked at Persian poems from different perspectives such as linguistics, rhetoric, prosody, and stylistics and has expressed pioneering opinions in these areas. Azad should be considered one of the prominent rhetoricians of the eighteenth century due to his original treatises in the field of rhetoric, Ghizlan ul-Hind and Subhat al-Marjan. Therefore, his rhetorical approach to literary criticism is of particular importance. In this paper, Azad’s rhetorical criticisms have been collected and explained, then his aesthetic viewpoints have been extracted, analyzed, and categorized through the criticisms. Most of his rhetorical perspectives aim to create semantic congruence and correlations, expand the association network of words, and increase their connection. His criteria for literary beauty include escaping from the constraints of the real world and distancing imagination from the limits of nature laws and the conventions of the mind. Azad considers “applicability by native speakers” to be one of the essential criteria for the correctness of unfamiliar language constructions and strange metaphors and similes. He also considers the expansion of the aspects of similarity to be the criteria of the excellence of similes. The beauty of poetry in his opinion is based on the three pillars of aesthetic astonishment, congruence, and objectivity.

Nezami Ganjavi, a Persian poet of the sixth century AH, has been introduced as a Turk in some directional studies of the last few decades. In this article, we have tried, firstly, by referring to the works of Nezami Ganjavi, in which there is no doubt about their attribution, and secondly, by referring to sources that have existed in this regard from the distant past to the present. And also published research and analysis on the subject under discussion, to examine the language of the military. In this study, it became clear that the mother tongue of the Iranian military dialect has been one of the various dialects in the history and vast geography of Iran, to which we have received many poems known as Fahlaviyyat in the margins of texts and manuscripts. The language of Nezami poetry was Persian Dari and there is no credible evidence that the verse was written in Turkish.

Binary opposites always play an essential role in transferring the meanings of narratives; meaning is produced and transferred through the structure and interrelations of binary opposites. Some structuralists believe that all narratives are founded on a fixed structure of binary opposites. Based on the role of binary opposites, this study compared narratives related to Creation in the texts of the Bundahishn, the Selections of Zadsparam, the Qur’an and Torah in order to establish the basic structure of the Story of Creation. To this end, first a hypothetical structure was depicted by analyzing the mythemes of the main texts and some other texts. Then, by a thorough re-reading of the selected texts, this structure was set as the verified basis and found the ability to explain the events in the text. Based on this structure, the main binary opposites of the first phase of the Story of Creation are: light/dark and male/female. Four characters, namely, light-male, light-female, dark-male, and dark-female, have been produced by combining these binaries. In the spring chapter of the Bundahishn, these four characters comprise never ending light (Hormozd), material light, never ending darkness (Ahriman), and material darkness. Day, earth, night, and sea play the same four characters in the first chapter of Torah and in the creation story of Adam they come in the names of pre-heaven Adam (spirit), Adam’s wife, Iblis, and angels. Another characteristic of the first phase of Creation is that creation in the light world is only spiritual and no material creation happens.

“Dash Akol” is one of the most important fictions in Persian literature. This short story is different from other fictions of Sadegh Hedayat. Sacrifice and “gheyrat” are important concepts in this fiction and this is questionable. The hypothesis of this article was that, unlike popular belief, “Dash Akol” is not entirely realistic but it`s a semi-Modernist short story because of central subjectivity of Akol. In other words, characterization in the second part of this story is Modernist. A Modern subject has three features and all of them are observable in the main character of “Dash Akol”: 1) Consciousness 2) Agency 3) Personhood. Akol have some secondary features too: 1) Overthinking 2) Attention to the unconsciousness 3) Solitude 4) Thinking about death. This short story is written in a period of contemporary Persian fiction that Modernist literature arose and this story has shown the evolution of contemporary Persian fiction.

In the recent decades, rhetorical criticism has been recognized as a method for the assessment of the letters in the Holy Book and many critics have applied this critical approach in studying Christian epistles. Apart from the communicative structure of the epistles – which is, naturally, fit for rhetorical analysis – another reason for the application of rhetorical criticism in studying the letters seems to be the fact that in their composition, the Christian epistles have been influenced by the principles of ancient oratory. Nowadays, some scholars believe that due to the influence of the instructions of oratory teachers, the principles of letter-writing in the ancient times were regulated in a special style and this has caused similarities between orations and letters in ancient times. Even though this view is not completely accepted in academic circles, it has motivated some scholars to attempt rhetorical analyses of the epistles of the Holy Book following the principles of ancient oratory. The present article first introduces the most important methods that, based on the principles of ancient oratory, have emerged in the rhetorical criticism of the Holy Book and, then, assesses the existing challenges in applying these methods in studies on the rhetorical criticism of the Epistle to the Hebrews.

Rumi, in the course of his development, had always had a companion beside him. Each of these partners had a major and specific role in his educational elevation. Among these influences, the role ofHusam al-Din Chalabias his last companion has been always concealed behind the veil of Rumi's exaggerated praise of him in Masnavi, thus making Husam's contribution to Rumi's spiritual exaltation very difficult to trace.
This article seeks through an analysis of Husam's characteristics and personality traits, to elucidate his special relationship with Rumi and consequently reveal the impact of Husam's presence on Rumi.

Time is one of the significant elements of narration. One of the pioneer researchers focusing on time is Gerard Genette. He classified times into three components: order, continuation and frequency, each of which is divided into smaller components. The present study investigates the concept of time in Nizami’s Story of Layla and Majnun. Owing to the fact that Nizami is one of the greatest storytellers in Persian literature and his verse anthologies have witnessed many imitators, a need was felt to introduce his employment of the concept of time to show the greatness of his poetry. The findings of this study illustrates that Nizami has frequently tried to use the elements of time shift and continuation (to lengthen the time span of his stories). Time shift (flashbacks to the past and the future) are narrative (internal) in nature which serves to lengthen the time of the stories. The narration in the anthology alternates between dialogue and dramatic expression and the abbreviations and frequency in the dramatic expression shows the high control of the narrator in how to narrate the story.

Style of a text is the way a writer or a poet uses the language and the result of what he chooses from the language treasury of his culture. The mind of an artist affects this choice and it is the artist who chooses how to express a theme. Therefore، the style used by a writer or a poet is a reflection of his special view to the inside and outside world. In fact، this view is manifested in his words. If an artist has a new view of the world، then he uses a new language to convey his mental concepts and inevitably has specific language choices. In his choices، the artist applies his personal preferences to language، and sometimes gets out of the conventional norms of the language. So، style is a product of the artist''s specific word choices. The present paper aims to study the effect of language choices on the style of the artist from the viewpoint of Paul Simpson.

Norm-breaking in the field of literature, like other areas of human knowledge, is the province of the talented. Norm-breakings Hafiz undertook in his ghazals came to be the source of a movement with a good many imitators. His norm-breakings took place in form, meaning and/or in the possible relationships between the two. Critiquing the social mores was one of his trademark iconoclastic practices in the realm of content. Another norm-breaking was inventing rhetorical subtleties whose novelty was particularly conspicuous in the realm of pun. It was an innovation in creating varied links of signs on the horizontal axis of poetry—an innovation resulted from Hafez’s contemplations on the emotional meanings of words conjured up in various cultural aspects. The harmony of meaning background and emotional background with the general music dominating them—a linkage created by meter, rhyme and juxtaposition of words—is another feature in Hafez’s poetry. The impressing value and emotional intimacy of these elements are palpable in his poetry. The most remarkable norm-breaking in Hafez’s ghazals may be the way in which the scattered meanings clandestinely interact through a ghazal; this has caused most scholars to regard it as polysemous and lacking in terms of logical relationship among couplets. These couplets, albeit distantly related with each other, are connected deep inside. Besides demonstrating Hafez’s rhetorical, artistic as well as semantic norms-breakings, the present paper shows that in spite of his poetry seeming scattered, which is a result of distant and far-reached associations in Hafez’s culturally and experientially loaded mind, there is an inner relationship among them that can be understood by transforming the norm-breaking propositions to norm-enforcing ones. A ghazal by Saadi is juxtaposed to one by Hafez to illustrate the issue at hand.

Although Akhavan Sales, one of the great contemporary poets, is known as a modernist poet;many parts of his Divan contain different forms of traditional poems. In this paper the language style of Akhavan`s 32 odes are considered to show that how much he is loyal to the rules of ancient language in this traditional form, how much he has used his own competence and what is his reason for using a special language. For this purpose the language of Akhavan`s odes are considered from both vocabulary and syntax aspects; and their ancient elements are extracted by comparing them with the poems of the past poets specially the poets of Khorasan. Findings show that although Akhavan is emotionally attached to ancient Persian language specially the language of Khorasan poets and uses many of this language features particularly those pertaining to syntax, but from the aspect of vocabulary his language doesn`t only remain in the zone of ancient language. He uses many words of that ancient one and he also uses innovative words and increases the wealth of the language.

Psychoanalytic   theory refers   to   the   definition   and   dynamics   of personality development which underlie and guide psychoanalytic in the field of literary criticism. First laid out by Sigmund Freud, this approach has used literary works as good examples of explaining psychological teachings. Freud declared literary text as the symptom of writer’s disorder providing the ability of psychoanalytical review. Freud’s views were so influential that some of literary schools of that time, including surrealism, increasingly considered themselves debtors of psychoanalytical thoughts, in artistic approach. Bahram Sadeghi’s story titled Malakut is a surrealistic and psychological story analyzed on the basis of psychology of characters. Two of the strong elements of the story are the concepts of death and thinking.  The  concept  of  death  which  is  considered  as  an  opponent element with eternity gives a meaning to the  actions and behavior of characters. This paper reviews the history of classic psychology and its connection with literature, generalities and definitions through the looking glass of Freud’s psychoanalyst views, summery of the story and analysis of characters as potential selves of the author himself.

“Malakoot” Story (literally celestial kingdom)، the only novel written by Bahram Sadeghi، is one of the memorial work that has been witten under the influence of “Boof-E-Koor” Story (literally Blind Owl) written by Sadegh Hedayat by a distinctive style and during a specific period of time. Aside from unique content of this story، form and structure of this work are also remarkable and marvelous. The present paper is intended to interprete some of lingual، structural and technical characteristics of this work; thus، with respect to the modern structuralist approach which has been purposed in the field of literary cticism during several years including strong strategies، the current essay was written. After a brief prologue concerning to structuralism and history of Malakoot (Celestial Kingdom) and definitions of structuralists’ views like Janet، Tzvetan Todorov، and Baret etc and purosing of their ideas، this paper dealt with omniscient point of view and presentation of Malakoot parameter as well as analysis on this story at two levels: Narative structure and narrative syntax. Despite of the seemingly existing inconsistent structure in narration of the story، Malakkot is considered as an interpretation of a solid and deliberate form and structure that begins with an unstable state and this lead to uttermost state following of the story trend. In part of narration syntax، functional، active، and their special function or action are taken into consideration so that with respect to story’s surface structure، Dr. Hatam as the main subject (agent) may affect other characters.

The emergence of mythology in the contemporary Persian novels, as the dominant literary discourse, is an epoch making movement. Based upon their vision and socio- political situation, many of the contemporary authors have used mythology in order to achieve two main goals: one, to present an interpretation of the world around, and the other, to enhance the esthetic and attractive values which they are to present in their works.According to the findings of the research, novelists within the 1340’s and 1350’s showed most concern toward restructuring and reproducing myth ever. A main reason was the authors’ nostalgias caused by the events such as the defeat of folk movement and the coup of Mordad 28th which mad long and deep impression on them. The most tendencies to myths in post-revolution period can be seen in 1370’s and 1380’s. However, the authors’ motivations differ from those of the pre-revolution period. A vast number of writers follow modernist and postmodernist movements and aesthetical tastes; some try to strengthen and revive national features, turn back to their traditional origins rather than pure imitating the West.The present research seeks to study and analyze how the mythological theme and narratives have been reflected, reproduced in the contemporary Iranian novels from mordad 28th 1332 to 1387.

Most of the researches which have studied the relation between cinema and literature have paid attention to the differences of literary fiction and drama in the scripts. One of the other grounds in which the ties between literature and cinema can be further on traced is "creation of pictures". The eloquent concepts of "figurative elements" and "forms of imagination" includes mental literary images and often infers to the implied figurative signs of the observer, being all listed in the science of expression in the variety of fields such as allegory, simile, trope, metaphor, irony and symbol. This article surveys the potentials of "literary allegories" in general and the "poetic allegories" of Massnavi and Shams Sonnets in particular for recreation in cinema's expressive device. The transition of literary allegories to cinema is possible through these potentials: 1. including several visual and animated, dynamic elements. 2. Conformity of pictures and concepts relevant to montage and stage direction. 3. The plenitude of pictures with the same width in the poetry length. 4. Including pictures with a distribution potential in the feature movie text due to the mystical content of completion. 5. Considering narrative texture and dramatic structure.

Rhetorical figures have been the focus of rhetorician's attention since the ancient era; they have also classified these figures differently. Even before division of rhetorical devices into three branches of meaning, expression and rhetoric, this attention has been prevalent. Among others Ibn-e Motaz, Qodamat, Ibn-e Rashiq and Ibn-e Sanam Khafaji did some studies in this area. After differentiating Sciences of Rhetoric from one another, in the 7th century, Sakaki divided rhetorical figures into figures of speech and figures of thought. In the contemporary era, there are other classifications which are based on the past ones, except for some additional points which is the outcome of recent linguistic discoveries. Modern poetry, and the figures of speech employed in it, has drawn our attention to another classification that is the division of figures of speech on the basis of their associations (similarity, contiguity, and opposition). After studying the historical classifications, this article attempts to classify the figures of speech on the basis of various classifications of associations.

Magic Realism is a modern fiction style. Although it invokes a South American's name and Gabriel Garsia Markez, specially, it is typical of the third world nations. In fictions of this style, reality and fantasy tie together but in the manner that reality dominates fantasy rather than the other way around. Among Persian novelists, Qolamhossein Saedi is inclined to this style in his fictions. It is possible to divide Saedi 's fictions into two groups: The first one, fictions that have been written in Magic Realism style. The second one, fictions in which only traces of Magic Realism can be found. In this article, both groups of fictions and the rational why Saedi followed this style will be discussed.

Often readers and even critics believe that the ideology and message of poems are more important than their structures. However, it's impossible to draw a distinction between ideology and structure as the structure of a poem is the primary element that influences the readership. Nima, as the architect of the contemporary poetry relying on his own sharp and independent insights, revived the significance of the structure in Persian literature. Many enthusiastic readers and even critics of the field of cotemporary poetry have considered Nima as the poet of 'Ai Adamha'. This paper attempts to explore why Nima has been called Ai Adfamha poet. Obviously, the significance of the poem 'Ai Adamha' and similar poetic structures lies in their literary figures and expectations embedded in their novel forms than their frequent content and message. The repetition of the dominant element of Ai Adamha in the structure of the poem has, in addition to strengthening the skeleton of the poem, enhanced the syntactic integrity, musical system, coherence, and creative opening and ending of the poem. This article attempts to analyze 'Ai Adamha' from a formalistic perspective and in doing so it paves the way for the readership to delve into the less frequently uncovered senses of the contemporary poetry.