جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « جاده ابریشم » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

Several researchers have investigated the Silk Road's status during the Mongol Empire, each of which, in their own way, has occasionally criticized prejudicially on the basis of their respective vantage points and attitudes. Undoubtedly, a comparative and contrastive study of the opinions of these researchers as well as their assessment employing primary sources and historical evidence could be of paramount importance in understanding the Silk Road's status during the Mongol era. One of the eminent historians pursuing the Mongol era is René Eqbal. An examination of his approach to the status of the Silk Road in the Mongol era as a topic which has not yet been argued upon can admittedly give rise to a better identification of the Silk Road's prominence in this period. Accordingly, not only does the current study compare and evaluate Eqbal 's standpoints with new investigations regarding the Silk Road's status during the Mongol Period, but it also critically analyzes his comments on the status of the Silk Road network in this era. The research method implemented in this study is based on review and comparison.

The land of China has long been the focus of historians and writers due to its vastness, history and diversity of culture and civilization. This research, looking at contemporary needs and necessities and relying on library sources and descriptive-analytical method, seeks to answer the question of what Muslim writers from the 3rd century Hijri to the middle of the 7th century Hijri provide knowledge about the economic situation and developments of this land. Muslims' knowledge about China at this point in time was based on personal observations, trusting other reporters, and in some cases based on stories and legends. One of the findings of this research is the attention of Muslim writers to goods, industries and mines, traditions and economic laws and routes, ports and commercial cities of China. The information that has good comprehensiveness and variety in terms of the subject and can tell the concerns, issues and economic attractions of this land from the point of view of Muslim writers.

As one of the Iranian national and heroic epics after Firdawsī’s Shāhnāma, the Kūshnāma was composed in New Persian by Īrānshān (maybe Īrānshāh) ibn Abī al-Khayr at the beginning of the 12th century. It has more than ten thousand verses, nearly half of which are devoted to the exile of the mythical king Jamshīd’s descendants in the lands of Chīn, Māchīn, and B.sīlā, and to their resistance against the assaults by Kūsh and his son, brother and nephew of Żaḥḥāk, the Tāzī rulers of Chīn and Māchīn.In line with Iranian literary historiography, which typically retells history by combining legends of pre-Islamic provenance with Islamic-era historical knowledge, the Kūshnāma contains a wealth of relatively authentic geographical information about the ancient world and even depicts several long-distance travel routes. Such geographical information could be placed against the historical context in which it was composed and further verified by other Muslim classical historical and geographical works. Through the lens of historical geography, this paper elucidates the Kūshnāma’s depictions of travel routes between Iran and East Asia, most likely drawing upon historical prototypes from the trade routes between the northwestern nomadic zone and China’s central plain, the maritime trade routes between China’s central plain and the Korean peninsula, the fur trade routes between Northeast and Central Asia, and the northern trade routes between Iran and Europe. Moreover, certain plots of the Kūshnāma also imply the influence of ancient horse trade routes. I contend that travel routes in the Kūshnāma, whether presented as routes of migration or military expedition, reveal their fundamental nature as trade routes for their close relation to the large-scale commercial activities conducted by merchants of various ethnic groups over the Eurasian continent in history.A close examination of the Kūshnāma along with relevant sources in Perso-Arabic and Chinese historical and geographical works leads to the following conclusions Kūshnāma’s depictions of the caravan trade between Chīn and Māchīn bear similarities with commercial activities of the Sogdians in history and can be read as a projection of Sogdian caravan commercial expeditions between Central Asia and East Asia in the Iranian epics. The prosperity of the maritime Silk Road provided Arabs and Persians with an important way to understand East Asia. Records related to China and Silla in some of the Muslim historical and geographical works compiled from the 9th century onward were evidently based on information acquired by Muslims along the maritime Silk Road. Therefore, it is reasonable that plots involving the maritime trade routes between China’s central plain and the Korean peninsula should appear in Persian epics. Considering scholarly consensus on Sogdian participation in the intra-Asian fur trade, I propose that B.sīlā’s delivery of sable to Iran and Chīn via diplomatic corps described in the Kūshnāma can be read as a projection of Sogdian international commercial affairs along the ways linking Central Asia and Northeast Asia in the Iranian epics. Analogues of Jamshīd’s clansmen’s journey via the northern sea route cannot be found in historical sources compiled before the composition of Kūshnāma, but a curious coincidence between the narrative of Kūshnāma and a later historical event draws our attention.This paper further demonstrates how ancient trade influenced literary texts by creating and shaping folk beliefs, more specifically how the horse trade in ancient times promoted the spread of folk tales about legendary water horses and how these stories later inflected important historical and literary texts including the Kūshnāma. According to the Kūshnāma, the inhabitants of B.sīlā used to cross-breed their domesticated horses with a magical horse living in the sea in order to obtain fine-bred ones. The marvelous horses of the water horse breed were sent by the kings of B.sīlā to the king of Chīn and Māchīn, as well as to the king of kings of Iran as precious gifts on several occasions. Textual evidence from the Iranian storytelling tradition and early Muslim geographical works suggests that accounts of fabulous horses coming out of water and mating with ordinary horses first originated in Khuttalān of Transoxiana and approximately from the 9th to the 12th century and then spread westwards, even to Urfa of southern Anatolia via Ṭūs in Khorasan, Ray and Hamadan on the Iranian Plateau. Therefore, we can at least hypothesize that in the Islamic era, stories concerning the water horse transmitted in Perso-Arabic literature are most likely the by-products of the westward migration of the people speaking Turkic languages. On the one hand, the flourishing international horse trade in ancient times may have influenced the spread of stories about the legendary water horse over the Asian continent, one of which was grafted onto the story of the Iranian princes exiled in B.sīlā in the Kūshnāma. On the other hand, kings of B.sīlā’s presentation of fabulous horses of the water horse breed to kings of Chīn and Iran in the Kūshnāma can be deemed as a literary projection of the commercial activities conducted by diplomatic missions.In conclusion, prosperity on the Silk Road, motivated by the need for trade between the East and the West, had significant cultural ramifications. The Kūshnāma’s incorporation of trade caravans and trade routes by Jamshīd’s and Żaḥḥāk’s clansmen can be attributed to folkloric expressions about the active long-term trade activities by diverse ethnic groups such as Parthians, Sogdians, Persians and Turkic-speaking peoples along the Silk Road in ancient times. Hence, they are projections of certain fragments of “folk history” in the collective memory of the ancient Iranians.

Requirement of each state is establishment of the Court after the formation and consolidation. Mongols had been nomadic people before the government was established by them. their knowledge was influenced by the cultures around them. Mongols was in Central Asia and in the neighborhood of civilized nations, including the Uyghurs and Kitan. This proximity and neighborhood created strings of connection between them in various formats. moreover Mongols standed in close neighborhood of great civilization of China and with present in Iran, the coordinates of Chinese civilization brought with them to Iran, specially joint common in administrative structure of Ilkhani. Thought there is the historical origins of joint common in Iran but it, but this harmony in the Ministry cohere the Chinese culture. This article is intended to the originals of joint common in China and the channels of communication Iranian and Chinese civilization, including Kitan, Uyghurs and the Silk Road which are involved and partook in the transfer of joint common from China to Iran.

While Kushan Empire, and in general, Central Asia is going to be studied historically, recognition of its economic situation gets a high level of importance. Therefore, their trade and commerce, agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts and their income of Buddhist temples were selected as the main components to identify the economic situation of Kushans. Despite the fundamental role these components played in prosperity of Kushans' economy, they have been paid less attention by the researchers. The present study is to analyze the Kushans' economic activities, especially their commercial activities and the factors affected them. So, by examining the causes of their economic improvement and the ways they used to get such prosperity, the role of each of above mentioned components have been analyzed. The results show that the foreign trade of Kushans with countries such as China, India, Iran and Greece, all on the Silk Road, should be considered as the most important factor affecting their economic prosperity. It was also found that, although the geographic territory of the empire had provided it the necessary facilities for progress economically, but what made the exploitation of environmental facilities and achievement of a prosperous economy possible was the approach of Kushan Emperors in adopting effective policies and providing security.

The term "Silk Road" was first used in 1876 AD (1292 AH. / 1254 ASH.) by a German geographer and tourist during his travel to China. Richthofen chose this name for the vast network of roads connecting Asia and Europe, from the China Sea to Central and Western Asia, especially the Iranian plateau, and Anatolia to the Mediterranean coast. This nomenclature was influenced by several circumstances and factors at the time, and this article examines the background of this nomenclature and explores this question based on the explanation of historical and literary data: What role has Iranian culture and art, including brocade (Zarbaft) produced in Central Asia played in naming the network of ancient trade and cultural roads as the "Silk Road"? Much research has been done on the role of Iran and its culture and civilization on roads, cultural interactions, and the common heritage of roadside communities, but the role of Iranian culture, history, art, and heritage in nomenclature of the Silk Road has not been studied. Scholars attribute it to the culture and history and role of Chinese silk, and the Chinese silk trade, regardless of the time of its naming and the effective reasons for using the name Silk Road in the 19th century; but in the present article, the role of Iran and Iranian culture in this nomination has been studied.

Since 545 AD, there has been evidence of the Turkic Khaganat's political-economic contacts with the Sassanid government. Bumin Khagan (551–552), before acceding to the Turkic Khaganate throne, had contacted the Sassanid Empire. From the 555 AD, after the sovrenity of khagante over area beyond the Syr Darya, Khaqanate was neighbors to the Sasanians, and the political- economic contacts between the two governments began from that time on. Economic issues increased the level of such contacts. In any case, this research, using the historical research method, referring to various evidences, including Roman sources, attempts to show the facts of the relations between the Sassanid and Khaganat governments during one of the famous Iranian kings. The research results from this article will enable the reader to gain a fairly clear picture of the economic-political relations of the Sassanid and Göktürk states during the Khosrow-I era. Determining the role of the Byzantine Empire in relation to the economic intentions of the Turks and Sassanid kings and its impact on the economic trends of the world at that time will be current research conclusion.

Timuriyan were successors of Mughal Ilkhanates. They reconstructed the destructions of mughal era. They also chose the east of Iran as their political center. Despite the struggles in Timuriyan era, we can see the progress in art and culture. Timur was interested in art and knowledge and this interest was continued through his successor era, Shahrokh, and next by Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqara. The success of Shahrokh in choosing to have his capital in Harat led to a glamorous time in Harat in terms of culture, art, and architecture. Moreover, it caused principal changes by making cultural buildings such as libraries, mosques, and schools. In Timuriyan era, Harat was one of the big and important cities of Khorasan. The Khorasan Road and Silk Road played significant roles in the enhancement of Harat city. In this article, we seek to investigate the historical changes of Harat city, the factors affecting its enhancement and progress during Timuriyan era, and also study the events happening after cultural revolution in this period. The research questions are as the following:• What are the reasons behind choosing Harat as the capital city in Timuriyan era?
• What were the cultural and civil works done in Harat city?
• Who was involved in cultural and civil works? To answer the abovementioned questions, the study continues with testing the hypotheses. Moreover, the documentary method is utilized to collect the data.

The famous route, today known as the Silk Road, was the longest and the most used trade road in the history of Eastern lands. A large part of this route which started from western region of China and reached eastern Mediterranean coasts, crossed through Grand Khorasan land, from Qums to Jayhoun. In 19th century researches of Europeans, the name the "Silk Road" became common and it became widespread afterwards. Nowadays everyone calls this route as the Silk Road. They have called this trade route as the Silk Road as they had thought Silk was the main and the most important product traded on this route. In the present paper, it will be analyzed whether the name was given correctly or not. Based on the findings of the present paper, naming this route as the Silk Road, could not have been true because of two fundamental reasons which are based on historical reports and actual realities. Firstly, prior to the 19th century, the name Silk Road did not appear in any Islamic and Iranian geographical sources and the larger part of this route was called the Khorasan Route. Secondly, after analyzing economic geography and traded products on the route, it was concluded that Silk was only one of the hundred products which were traded on that route while it was not superior to other products.

Researchers place the beginning of Iran-China relations and the following development of the Silk Road at Jang Chians visit to the territories to the west of of the Han Empire in the 2nd century B.C. But it is safe to assume that prior to this visit there existed contacts which set the stage for trade via the Silk Road. Studying Chu folk culture and observing its resemblance to Indian and Iranian tradition and its similarity to Zoroastrianism, archeological findings, existing information in Greek and Chinese books, namely those obtained from transcripts of Cyrus Cylinder inscribed on two pieces of horse leg bones in Gurbanunggut desert in the north of Xinjiang, all reveal indirect contacts between Iranian and Chinese culture since the Achaemenians. As Chinese trade with the Sogdians grew in the 3rd century B.C, and following Alexander the Great’s military campaing and the expansion of Greek rule, the contact between the two civilizations started and so did the life of the Silk Road. Thus, the current research seeks to study the role of the Achaemenians and Sogdians in the formation and developmento of the Silk Road based on archeological and historical evidence.

Countries of the historico-geographical expanses covered by the Economic Cooperation Organization constitute the main terrain through which the most important trade, cultural and social routes have passed since time immemorial. The roads link the communities in these countries and have served as platforms on which capabilities and heritage have been shared. Thus, collective identity and common cultural and historical heritage have long been the main bond among these nations. According to modern research, thousands of kilometers of road constitute the Silk Road network. Half of these roads are situated in the ten Member States of the ECO. More than their primary function which was commercial and economic, these roads served the higher purpose of transmitting this intellectual and material heritage among societies. This network acted like a chain connecting the cultural hubs together, for which reason, these roads, particularly in ECO countries, merit the name ‘Culture Roads’. Through historical research methodology the current article has sought to study the inter-cultural role of ECO members in civilization and cultural heritage of the ancient roads. Tangible, intangible, written and natural heritage as is common to ECO countries constitute the most important feature of the Silk Road. These countries can play an important role in nominating the Silk Road to be registered globally.

Bahram V’s reign constitutes a significantly important and eventful epoch in the Sassanid era during which the Caucasus and Central Asia were hotly disputed amongst Sassanid Empire, Rome and local kings and rulers. The disputed lands were characterized by special economic, political, religious and geographical features which drew the attention of Iranian Kings, Roman empires, Armenian Lords and local rulers leading them to go to great lengths to dominate the land. What were the reasons for the developments in the North-western (the Caucasus) and -eastern (Central Asia) part of Iran? This article seeks to put these developments in its proper historical context in order to study the determining factors shaping the prevailing political atmosphere by means of descriptive-analytical method. For some reasons, some parts of Iran were invaded by the Romans, Armenians and eastern tribes which brought about fundamental change in the northwestern areas and eastern borders. The irresponsibility of the Sassanid kings along with the corrupt influence of lords and nobles, greed, lack of mutual respect, religious conversion and acquisition of wealth propelled this downward trend.

The Silk Road was one of the most important routes connecting ancient civilizations. It was also the main road used for commercial exchanges between the East and the West. This very long route enjoyed great splendor and significance in the course of history and played a major role in the world’s economic relationships. Along the course of this commercial route, not only goods but also cultures, traditions, customs, and rituals were exchanged between China and the West. The importance and fundamental role of this road in the history of the economic, cultural, and social relationships in the world is known to everyone. Here, the important stations and stopping places held specific significance in the course of history. One of the important cities on the Silk Road was Kashghar which, due to its geographical location, attracted the attention of many writers and historians. Accordingly, it has been mentioned several times in ancient historical and geographical texts, and the process of its development has been clearly manifested therein. Iran is one of the oldest Asian countries which is located in the middle of the Silk Road. It played a mediating role in connecting China and Western countries, which is why Iranian writers, historian, literarymen, and geographers have always written about this commercial route and, particularly, about Kashghar and its stations and transferred their knowledge in this regard from generation to generation. The study of such sources and introducing them to others could greatly contribute to clarifying the quality of the economic and cultural exchanges through the Silk Road. The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief explanation of the status of Kashghar on the Silk Road through a study of Islamic texts. Moreover, it mainly intends to introduce the writers of these works and provide a selection of known facts about this city. In doing so, the writer has tried to classify the related Persian texts and briefly introduce them. Therefore, the present paper explores and evaluates the status of Kashghar on the Silk Road as a historical problem in three categories: “Kashghar in the historical, geographical, and literary texts of the early centuries of the rise of Islam until the Safavid era”, “Kashghar in Persian prose texts”, and “status of Kashghar on the Silk Road according to a historical map from the Mongol Period”.

The relations between Iran and China, as two ancient civilizations, possess a long and old antecedent. These relations had been perceived on different levels such as, political, economic, cultural and other fields. However the mentioned relations had never been maintained in a harmonized manner. And sometimes have experienced some changes. In 7th century (A.H) both Iran and China were exposed to Mongolians’ attack. New atmosphere was appeared over the relations of both countries right after the completion of the conquest of Iran and China and the establishment of ancestral government of Mongols (Ilkhanian in Iran and Juan in China), so that these relations had been apparently hit the pick of its exaltation. The results and the background of the expanding of these relations will be investigated in the following essay.

The main aim behind long war between Iran and Bezant was initially to conquer new lands and to extend Empires, but it gradually changed to dominate trade roads including carvani's roads, rivers, seas and main trade cities, from which the path of main trade roads passed.Long war between Bezant and Persia caused the path of many those roads located at arena of war to be changed, as traders left many roads and chose new paths for their trade. Silk Road was one of those main roads that was effected by this competition and the traders followed new paths out of Persian-Bezant war arena. Based on Persian and Roman sources and other historical evidence, this research has tried to examine the effect of Sasanian- Bezant wars on the change in path of trade roads from lands to sea and vice- versa.

If the communication between people and thinkful flow, artistic, ceremonies, religious were actually culture transference by goods. Surely, Iranians would have a particulare rolle in this cultural herritages transfer such as partians, Babylonian, sogdian, khotanian, khowarazmian, have a big share in this transfer. Immigrants, Businessmen, religious missioners, travel through the central Asia and they were the agent for transferring their material, cultural, religious outputs that they sometimes were confronted with the attack of tribes as Hunian, Heftalit, Hayatale, Turkeys, and Mongols. Some of them were attracted by theirselves. Through this adventurous silk of route was that differences religious as buddhism, Tao, Mani, Christians, Islam, reached to china. In fact, China,India, Iran, as the important and effective agent have been created and linked with national culture in this strategic route. Surely, the emergence of the kushanians civilization ever in south and east of Afganistan and in north of Indian subcontinent contributed in combination of the Iranian and Indian and Greeks culture. The silk route of in the old period was an economical, cultural subject that has been added their economical, cultural function because of spreading communications and transportation. Silk Production in china in old ages were enumerated an important and industrial secrets and and trade and Business. Transportation of this goods from china to region Meditranian sea were through different routes. One of these important routes were the best-known an Achemenid Royal route that was a big and royal route. This route formed after west part of this big silk route. Development of the trade exchanges made extend communications between differences tribes. At 2 century B.C. has been developed trade relations between east and west and luxury things. Silk route was the main factor of the commercial and economical exchanges and transmitting of knowledges and advanced civilization between west and east of the world. Transmitting of knowledge appeared before the industrial revolution in Europe from east to west gradually fom west to east. It maybe accomplished a kind of interchange because of the economical, scientific, technical developments in the east of Asia that we will witness in future.