جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « Ancient Iran » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

Futuwwa ritual is considered as a powerful, original, ethical, long-lasting and epoch-making sub-culture in the history of Iran. Some believe that the origin of Futuwwa, based on Futuwwa epistles (futuwwat-nāma), historical documents and mystical texts, has its roots in the manifestations, religions and beliefs of ancient Iran, but another group believes in the Islamic origins of this ritual. Although various factors such as Islamic teachings, social developments and political powers have played a role in the formation, development, evolution and expansion of Futuwwa ritual; the existence of some similarities between this ritual and the beliefs, rites, ceremonies and religions of ancient Iran shows that Futuwwa was greatly influenced by ancient Iranian culture. This article is prepared in a descriptive-analytical method and tries to express the origins of Futuwwa in ancient Iran regarding two approaches, form and thought. The results of this research show that some Ayyaran words such as: Aiyar/Ayyar, Shkoh, Mireh, Asbaran, Azadan, indicating the Ayyaran-like life in the old Iranian tradition. Wearing pants and fastening special Ayyaran belt, drinking water and salt, carrying a dagger, lighting a light, ringing a bell and tattooing, which have been customary among Fetians and Ayyaran, have their roots in the ancient rituals of Iran. Referring to chivalry in Avestan sources and epic narratives, as well as the existence of similarities between the intellectual foundations and social thoughts of Mithraism, Zoroastrianism, Ahl-e-Haq, Mani, Mazdak and Futuwwa are other things that this research has achieved.

Imageology is a branch of comparative literature that studies how one's culture is portrayed in the culture and literature of another. The images that belletrists of a nation present as a result of communicating with the people of another nation can represent the attitude of their people towards another nation. Jahiz, known as the father of Arab writers in the Abbasid era, presented numerous images of different nations in his writings, with a deep attitude and vast knowledge gained from the sciences of his time and before. Iranians, with a large population in Jahiz's era and living environment (Basra), are among the nations that Jahiz knew well, as well as their history and culture. Therefore, in his various and numerous writings, he describes some of Iranian characteristics according to the context. In his book, "Al-Taj fi Akhlaq al-Muluk", Jahiz brings in different political, cultural, and social aspects of ancient Iranians. In this research, we classified different images of ancient Iran in this book of Jahiz, based on imagology, and analyzed the reasons for Jahiz's attitude towards Iranians. The results show that Jahiz values the ancient Iranian civilization and the sultans of this land, and by presenting images of the ancient Iranian civilization to the Abbasid rulers, he tries to encourage them to imitate the behavior and performance of the Iranian kings in political, cultural, and social issues.

One of the constructive and fundamental elements in the material world, which has always played a valuable role in human life, is "fire." Whatever exists in the universe is related to this sacred element.  Fire has long had a special place in Iran. Zarathustra gave it a moral and spiritual aspect and considered it a sign of purity. Given the mysterious nature of the fire and the symbolism of fire in myths of the past and present religions, we find that this element has always been linked to the life and lives of humans and its ritual ceremonies. It is certain that the fire in the cultural background of our ancestors was religious belief, but today it can be regarded as a symbol of bondage in past and present culture. Iranian mystics like Rumi expressed this fire in the school of love and beauty in expressive expressions and seeing light like Zoroastrians in the course of the spiritual journey, And has come to light with inward intuition. This is the fire that has been echoed by Rumi:  "Whoever does not have this fire is nothing." And this fire appears in spiritual wine and mystical music and beauty of the beloved And completely colors the mysticism of Iran. In this speech, it is attempted to provide an interpretation and analysis of the fire in the view of Rumi through an analytical method (library).

An examination of the remnants of ancient Iranian texts demonstrates the importance of friendship in the beliefs of ancient Iranians. According to the teachings presented in these texts, achieving the desired Ahurai world depends on a correct understanding of the concept of friendship in teachings of Zoroaster. This descriptive-analytical study examines the various aspects of the concept of friendship in surviving texts of ancient Iran and seeks to answer the question of how the types of friendship appeared in the Achaemenid inscriptions and the texts of the old and new Avesta. The findings of this study show that In Gathas, the levels of friendship are expressed through friendship with Zarathustra and attribution to the Ahuraian attributes (six Amshaspandans). Zarathustra has provided a hierarchy according to which the Zoroastrian person at each stage is characterized by various manifestations of friendship and eventually achieves the friendship of Ahuramazda. With the spread of instances of doctrine, expressions of friendship have increased in the late Avesta. The Yazatas and Fravahr of good people are those who’ve joined the friends of Ahuramazda and mediate achieving friendship with Ahuramazda. Sushyants are also mentioned in the explanation of the end of the world; friends of Ahuramazda who will determine the fate of the great battle.The concept of friendship in Achaemenid inscriptions is based on creating a bond of friendship with Mazda effects. The consequences of friendship with truth and friendship with untruth and their impact on the fate of the kingdom are expressed.

From an expert's perspective, color and form are human visual perception's most significant visual elements. Nowadays, a significant number of theories have been proposed in the field of color recognition, and the advancement of science and research experiences have paved new ways for feeling and perceiving it. Ethan, the author of "The Art of Color", claims A physicist studies the energy and particles in light, the composition of colored lights, the spectrum of elements, and the frequency and wavelength of colored rays. The molecular structure of pigments is of high importance for a chemist. A biologist examines the distinct impacts of light and color on the visual system and how the eye adjusts to them. The psychologist considers the effect of color on the psyche and mental understanding of colors. Artists are interested in color aesthetics and weigh on the representation of it in artworks. Thus, all these sciences were historically regarded as a subset of philosophy. Therefore, the most comprehensive theories on color were considered a tangible quality issued by philosophers. However, a lack of familiarity with these theories has recently made colorology a new science, concomitant with Newton's experiences and experiments. It is assumed that its origin goes back to the era of specialization of sciences. Historically, philosophers in Iran and Greece have paid attention to the issue of color regarding light, and unknown secrets are written with the source of conceptual or visual sensory perceptions. 
Therefore, these writings continued with the emergence of Islam, influenced by the Arabic translation movement in the Abbasid era, and were closely related together; they framed the mind of Muslim philosophers by creating developments and new perspectives and the foundation of the philosophical school of illuminationism by Sheikh Shahabuddin Suhravardi at the height of this interaction in the following centuries. 

Similarly, this study tries to analyze its philosophical data about colors comparatively and to extract the similarities and differences in their opinions about the perception of this visual element based on light. It is assumed that: Therefore, in all of their comments, the philosophers of Iran and ancient Greece explained the same color by taking the model of light; the perception of this element, a combination of conceptual and visual perception has been manifested. Zoroaster and Mani, in Iran, were regarded as the philosophers and wise people to accept or reject these hypotheses. While describing their religious-knowledge system, they have explicitly or implicitly referred to color manifestations in a written or visual manner. The thoughts of Empedocles, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were studied in Greece.

Analyzes of the common and distinct aspects of various visions of philosophers suggest that color in their opinions is not only a mixture of the two conceptual and visual senses; each has only stressed one of these two. Thus:Colors emerge in the form of lights with a metaphysical and spiritual nature either in the stand of the soul and its darkness or in the stand of God's manifestation and approaching to Him, and can carry a meaningful quality for humans and finally provide the basis for symbolic spiritual interpretations. Iranian philosophers paid extensive attention to seeing this visual element in the conceptual sense. They perceptually and intuitively substantiated the perception of color and defined ranges of pure and raw colors between white and black. In this range, they valued content and the concept of colors.
Likewise, Greek philosophers heavily emphasized seeing this visual element in their vision. Colors that regularly emerge in the shape of various lights with physical nature can potentially convey the tangible quality of the object and the form in isolation as well as in combination with each other for humans and finally form the basis for the sensory interpretations. Therefore, perception of color and its context leads to the emotional and tangible substantiation of its existence by the power of vision, the three components of the object's essence, the way the light shines, and the condition of the eye state. 
Everybody has considered the existence and the human reaction to their perception certain and expressed comprehensive comments focusing on how to view this visual element. However, should we profoundly consider the thoughts and ideas of these philosophers as the final point, we will find out the correspondence of their opinions with colors and their conversion and combination, which God has created in nature. Ironically, this has been the turning point in their effect on each other and building common interests. It means they spiritually contemplate God's signs, whether in a perceptible or over-perceptible world. The contrast between white and black and various colors between these two are shared among Iranian and Greek philosophers; the red color is also formed by the combination of white and black, whether physically or metaphysically. Greek philosophers emphasized the tangible quality of colors and immediate and direct feeling. On the other hand, Iranian philosophers heeded attention to the mental perception of colors by their mythical and symbolic functions. The functions are based on a stable mental process and are considered the reason for viewing various colors without a sensory organ. According to the belief of Iranian philosophers, the nature of light and color are not separated, and their difference and how color is affected by light is not considered in viewing various colors. The Greek philosophers believed that the difference in how light is affected by colors caused the eyes to see the colors differently. Greek philosophers have expressed some conditions in their ideas to realize the color vision and the perception of it beyond the vision power.  However, Iranian philosophers considered human efforts the condition for the light seeker in symbolic transit from darkness and the evils to brightness and the goods in the evolution of the soul. In the scope of Greek philosophy, color is a material element and the product of the dissociation of light to reveal several defined objects from which the primary colors are taken, and from the combination of them, the secondary colors are produced.  However, light is synonymous with the existence and manifestation of God’s infinite nature from which various colors are produced in Iranian philosophy. It is the cause of the realization and emergence of colors in the realm of human existence. From Iranian philosophers’ point of view, white and black colors are created based on how much they benefit from the source of God’s grace; thus, they have semantic and symbolic value.  Nevertheless, these colors are created based on the extent to which the physical radius of light increases or decreases.

Unlike Socrates, who briefly and concisely proposed his thoughts on how he sees colors, other philosophers in these two countries have pointed out the details of the emergence of colors based on light and its different types. The difference is that Iranian philosophers studied the classification of colors and the Greek philosophers examined their combinations. The former have always considered colors in the longitudinal hierarchy and the latter in the transverse hierarchy. Although the Greek philosophers' opinions are distinct from each other, i.e., Empedocles and Democritus studied colors based on the movement of light particles, Socrates reviewed them based on eye frictions with light rays, Plato considered the outcome of the exit of the radius, and Aristotle examined them based on their impressions. Thus, they have proven all these topics based on the visual sense. On the other hand, Zoroaster and Mani saw colors from another angle of view and considered the intuition of the human soul in gaining the grace of Ahura as evidence for different colors. 
The Greek philosophers believed that the difference in how light is affected by colors caused the eyes to see the colors differently. They believe that the nature of light and color are not separated, and the difference and how color is affected by light are not considered in viewing various colors. Therefore, they explained the perception of this visual element regardless of the arguments of physical logic about the perception of colors based on conceptual sense.

The research on the culture and history of ancient Iran flourished even more in the first few decades of the 14th century and several contemporary professors and researchers of the country have dedicated all or an important part of their research to it. Mojtaba Minavi has always paid special attention to various historical, cultural, literary and linguistic fields of this period from his first researches to his last ones and has authored, corrected and translated various works in these fields. In the present research, the total works of Minawi in the field of ancient Iran are categorized and analyzed with descriptive and analytical methods. In Minavi's interest and propensity towards ancient Iran, factors such as the promotion of nationalism by the government, benefiting from the attendance of several prominent contemporary professors, communication with a group of orientalists interested in this historical period, and Membership in the Rabe group was effective. He emphasized on continuity of Iranian culture and history, and considered the language of Iranians in all historical periods, from ancient Persian to modern Persian and all dialects and languages related to it, as the main pillar of Iranian culture and civilization, and the modern Persian language as one of the foundations of the Iranian nation. With this approach, part of Minawi's research is in the description and analysis or correction of texts from the culture and history of ancient Iran, especially Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, and another part belongs to the realm of Persian language.

Examining the Pahlavi advice books shows us that friendship is an individual trait before it is a social concept. This means that every person must first be characterized by the temperament of» friendship« by using good teachings, and then strive for friendship and gaining good friends. Understanding friendship and good friends is one of the basic concepts of Sassanid advices that plays an important role in understanding their thoughts correctly. Therefore, this research tries to give a clear answer to the question of what is the place of friendship in Sasanian advice books and how are these ideas organized? The findings of this study (which has been done by descriptive- analytical method) indicate that Pahlavi advice books, in both religious and empirical types, place great emphasis on friendship. Religious advice books, with the aim of spiritual salvation, are based on loving the soul and living as it pleases. Also, empirical-practical advices, in the light of achieving salvation and mental health, emphasizes the friendly relations of people and good living in the shadow of friendship. The Pahlavi friend-oriented advices express an idea that intends to destroy demons with the help of friendship and to continue the creation and upbringing of good people by establishing security and peace. Hence, the essence of the idea of friendship is » people-friendliness«, which has been interpreted as the law of Ahuramazda. In this way (which is not to the liking of demons), warnings are always given to stay away from the deceitful false friends, and to know the good friend of the selfish friend, the role of the righteous and consultation with them is spoken.

The Shahnameh embodies the culture and ideas of the ancient Iranians through numerous elements, including myths, epics, and stories of kings and heroes. These ideas narrate the cosmological perceptions, social structures, traditions and moral and behavioral examples of the ancient Iranians which is known as Khosravaniphilosophy. These profound thoughts have been formed in a philosophical way from various religions such as Manichaeism, Mithraismand most of all Zoroastrianism; The basis of Khosravi's wisdom is light And the manifestations of this issue in Shahnameh  with high-frequency components such as wisdom, Light, Fire, Splendor (Farr), Angles (Emshaspandan), Goddess (Izadan) and dark forces like the Devil (Ahriman) and Demons (Divan) which are in contrast to the light and Ahuraian Lighting, along with its romantic and lyrical aspects, express the philosophy of life from the perspective of Khosravi wisdom.In this study, using the method of content analysis, components of Khosravani'sphilosophyhave examined in Shahnameh and shown that the brilliant reflection of these themes interrelated to its roots in Shahnamehhas provideda ground for establishing transcendental ideas, creating free thinking space with flowing it to the the heart of society and literary works, as well as a situation for the dialogue of texts throughout history.Therefore, by recognizing this trend, a systematicperception of Iranian literary, historical and religious works can be achieved.

Iranshahri Thought, particularly its political aspect, represents the system of thought that dominates the history of ancient Iran, which, despite all the changes, has continued in the Islamic period. In the surviving works of Persian literature, such as Kelileh va Demneh of Nasrollah Monshi, which is a fictional work, and Mersād al-ʻEbād of Najmoddin Rāzi, which has explained mystical views and Sufi etiquette, the reflections of the Iranshahri Thought can be clearly observed. Saadi is also a man from Iranshahr who, despite studying Islamic sciences in the Nezamiyye and being influenced by the Sufi thoughts, in his works, Golestan and Bustan, he manifested the ideas of Iranshahri Thought. The present study shows that all the components of Iranshahri Thought, including having a hierarchal view of the universe (especially of the human community), considering the king as the leader in the hierarchy of society, knowing the kingdom as divine and believing in Farr-e Izadi (divine royal glory) of the king, considering his opinion and speech as the law, the need to fulfill the duties (khishkāri), the distinct concept of justice, repeated advice to adhere the virtue of moderation, satisfaction and contentment with what the cosmic order has given man, and finally, considering religion and kingdom as a united concept are evident in Saadi’s works

The defeat of Sassanid dynasty against Arabs, marked a new “historical” era for the land of Iran; but not only the ancient and rich culture of Iran lost by this defeat, but also it continued in the Islamic era. One of the beliefes and rituals which has taken many forms and shapes and has been through many ups and downs over the course of history is “chivalry” .The common theory in this regard is that  chivalry is derived from Sufism; Since Sufism was originated from Islamic training, chivalry has Islamic origin too. Although one cannot completely ignore the influence of Islamic culture in chivalry, ignoring Iranian culture and civilization whose foundation is wisdom, goodness and art, isn’t rational and fair. The author has attempted to refer to the origins of this doctrine and its probable effect from pre Islamic culture and civilization in spite of different and controversial views of researchers about chivalry and difference existing in its origins and principles. Therefore, the effects of  ancient Iran, Zoastrianism and Mehri and Manavi religions on chivalry are examined in three independent sections and it is believed that these effects don’t mean complete agreement or adaption.

Although the last ancient period of Persia ended with the Arab attack and the fall of the Sassanid dynasty, the Persians were experiencing new traditions and customs, but the Sassanian historical defeat was not the end of Iranian culture and civilization. Ancient Iran’s old culture continued its survival in the Islamic era; even the heavy attack of Arabs was unable to break the relationship between Islamic Iran and the rich, ancient heritage of pre-Islamic period. In this respect, the periodic connection between Sassanid and Islamic era is not the period of interruption but “the period of transfer of Iran’s culture and civilization from an epoch, with its own characteristics, into another in which other characteristics have been produced as a result of dealing with other factors and on the path of its gradual, historical evolution” (Mohammadi Malayeri, 2000, p.6). One of the customs that has undergone many changes during the course of history, is “chivalry” which has many kinds in history and culture of Iran. In this study, it is tried to refer to the Iranian sources of chivalry and the probable effects of pre-Islamic Iranian culture and civilization on it.

In the early centuries of the advent of Islam in Iran, the devotees founded the ideology of “Sufism”, using the teachings of Islam, Quran, and Hadiths. Many researchers believe that the foundations of Sufism are Islam and Quran. According to many books on Sufism, “generosity and chivalry” is retrieved from Sufism; also chivalry, as well as Sufism, first had a primitive form, then began to expand day after day. The issue of retrieving generosity from Sufism does not end here; because there are many reasons which represent that awareness of older sources of generosity requires looking at the heritage of ancient Iran, including the Sassanian and even the Parthian period. Perhaps chivalry, at least in some aspects, has roots in such a viewpoint. According to the prevailing perspective, “generosity” is rooted in Sufism and Sufism itself comes from the teachings of Islam; therefore, generosity has Islamic origin. Accepting this vision, conflicts with researchers’ remarks and requires reflection on the issue. Sahrverdi clarifies that not all codes of generosity are in accordance with Islam’s principles but ofcourse it does not deprecate the principles (Saraf, 1991). Sahrverdi (2001) has applied the interpretation of “fati beyza” to “Hallaj”; on the other hand, Abo Abdullah Dastani has introduced Bayazid Bastami Zartoshtizade as one of the first believers who reached the highest levels of generosity (Haman, 2006); the fact that these two with “Kharaghani” and “Abul Abbas Ghasab” formed the kernel of “Khamire Khosravanin” can indicate the close relationship of chivalry with some ancient Iranian traditions and pre-Islamic culture.The author does not seek to attribute all documents to pre-Islamic Iran by overlooking the influence of the productive Islamic culture and its role in generosity or to look for all roots in that period; in fact, he argues that it is impossible to renounce the influence and role of Iran’s culture and tradions. He also mentions that this delicate, narrow path requires fair, cautious steps as well as avoiding absolutism, generalization, bias, and jaundice. The influence of pre-Islamic culture on expansion and development of chivalry in Islamic period has many different manifestations, including the ancient Iran and its influence on chivalry; also it includes traditions and religions of Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Mithraism in addition to their influence on chivalry, which have been discussed in detail in this study.

The chivalry as a belief and a manner, having ancient origins, has never been destroyed by the extinction of governments. In addition to accepting new requirements as well as environmental, cultural, and social conditions, chivalry is transferred from one age to another.  The custom of chivalry, which grew simultaneously with the expansion and development of Sufism, has connection with Iranian origins; in a way that some relevant Zoroastrianism customs can be referred to, such as the refusal of perfidy, hospitality to strangers, altruism, igniting five-burner light kerosene lamp, changing “kosti” to “shad”, changing “sodre” to “saravil”, changing wine to “kasolfotove”, forgiving in the midst of need, and continuing the custom of writing books on generosity. Furthermore, some characteristics of Mithraism and Manichaeism has influenced generosity, such as equality, brotherhood, love, friendship, honesty, respecting elders, respecting masters, and making sacrifices in order to refine human’s soul. Yet, the most influential contribution to historical influences belongs to the Sassanid dynasty, since Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Mithraism had better opportunity to grow in this very period.

From the time when man, by forming a monolithic society and passing through cave-dwelling beyond basic needs such as food and clothing, thought of expressing his feelings and emotions and relieving pain, he found music to be the best means for this purpose. The important point is that gradually some people who acquired talent and skills in this field found a place and became an integral part of society. In the meantime, what is very important is that music has also been used in battlefields,and on this basis, one of the important issues is what musical instruments have been used on the battlefields, and more importantly, what impact and importance these musical instruments have had in battles. Also what was the role of musicians and musicians in military formation and arrangement.  Due to the prestige that music had in custom and among religious teachings; The musicians were introduced as court attendants. It is important to note that some musicians and musicians were on the same level as the upper classes of society and took an active role in advancing cultural, religious and even military goals among the Iranian dynasties.

In this research, by studying the narrations of Greek historians, religious books and the writings of some historians of the Islamic period, it has been tried to study different musical instruments as well as the use and ability of musical instruments in Iranian military battles and encounters with enemies. Also, to advance the research have been used, poetic and literary works and material references, as well as abbreviations and musical instruments that have been reflected in the research texts. Thus, through library studies, by arranging and processing the available information in a descriptive, analytical way, the research has reached results about the importance, position and capability of music in the battles of the Iranians.

One of the most important issues in the history of Iran is the study of how martial music and musicians helped the Iranian government in military conflicts. Also, according to the numerous wars that existed in different eras between Iranians with Eastern and Western enemies, what was the use of different musical instruments in organizing forces, conveying concepts and even achieving victories and successes. Martial music is a collection of special songs with symbols used on battlefields to convey a message or command that is meaningful to the commanders and soldiers of the same army. Also, military music is the music of awakening, movement, work, effort and war, and has aroused a sense of national pride of the troops. In ancient Iran, different musical instruments were used in ceremonies and battles, which according to the examples and in the written and material works can be said that in ancient times, the musical instruments used in battlefields were more than wind and percussion and the Iranians (especially in the Parthian era), unlike the Greeks and Romans who used wind instruments, used more percussion instruments such as drums. Another instrument that we find along with many drums in the writings of ancient historians was the kos or kust and trumpet, which were especially effective with the horn(hornpipe), especially to signal the army to start a battle or to enter a part of the army into battle. One of the first functions as well as the most important effects of epic music; It was to motivate the troops in the resistance against the enemies, and in other words, this tool was so strong in motivating and encouraging the troops to face the enemies that one of the tricks in weakening the troops' morale and defeating them was first to silence the music and then to overthrow the flag. Another military goal that music provided on the battlefield was to intimidate the opposition and exaggerate their own military capabilities. In fact, one of the uses of violent music such as drums, cymbals and trumpets in wars was to frighten the heart of the enemy and the more deafening these sounds were, the more useful the income of their own troops was in frightening the enemy and disrupting their order and concentration. Also, the important applications of music in informing and sending messages to the troops should not be neglected, because through this, the troops became aware of the commands and orders of the commanders, and based on this, the movements and actions of the division were organized in a regular and fast manner. In ancient Iran, during war trips, musicians who were organized as a group were among the troops and held special positions and duties in the military formation. In fact, according to the available reports, singers and musicians had a special place among the troops, and when enumerating the special and close relatives of the king, there was talk of three classes, the first two being soldiers and border guards, and the third, next to the army; were singers and musicians.

In the ancient world, in addition to feasts, music was also used very seriously in battles, and the soldiers used musical instruments in military exercises until they faced the enemy army. In fact, the soldiers woke up to the sound of an instrument and lined up, attacking, besieging, or retreating to the sound of music. In this way, the commands and orders of the commanders were heard by the soldiers in the form of military voices. What can be seen from the documents and material and written evidence, musical instruments had a special variety in the history of Iran and in expressing each message and conveying the meaning and concept of a particular instrument or instruments, it was used individually or in unison. And especially because of the existence of minstrel and the importance of epic narrations and the fact that the poems that told epic stories were accompanied by music, musicians and singers had a special place among the troops and the musicians and singers formed a certain section and member of the body of the Iranian army. These people tried to prepare the soldiers to face the enemy and to raise and strengthen the morale of the troops, and with their terrifying songs,were also effective in weakening the morale of the enemies.

In the tale of Rostam and Esfandyar we are faced with two noble warriors.  One believes that “No one will ever see me in chains alive” while the other brazely states “A king’s fetters are no cause for shame”.  What brings the two noble warriors in opposing sides and leads them to their inevitable end is the difference in their outlooks towards the kingdom and Pahlavani or heroic institution the former is raised from the Persian tradition before Zoroaster and the latter is derived from the reforms made by Zoroaster.  Employing the structuralist approach this research studies the standpoint of Pahlavani institution and its relations with the kingdom institution in the two following traditions before Lohrasp, and Lohrasp-Goshtasp.   Important features in the former are the following:  the presence of Nyram’s family as a representative of Pahlavani essence, the convincing validity of heroic identity, independence and freedom of a warrior, Pahlavan’s intermediary role between the king and his subjects, his supervision over justness, and the royal empire, and minimizing the King’s power.  In the latter tradition Pahlavan or warrior belongs to the royal family. He does not have a genuine identity and he is totally obedient to the commands and has no role except fighting under the king’s banner.  Contrary to the former Lohraspi tradition, the royal institution has unlimited power and no institution is defined and recognized to supervise king’s deeds and to threaten his avariciousness.  It seems that Lohraspi-Goshtaspi tradition is the result of reforms made by Zoroaster himself or Mobads in the name of Zoroaster.

The continuation of ancient Iran’s political culture and thought during the era of Islamic Iran has attracted significant attention. A large number of studies have been conducted on Andarznama (Epistles) and Siyar al-mulûk (the Lives of Kings), especially Nizam al-Mulk’s Siyasatnama (Book of Politics). Tahir’s letter to his son, Abdullah, is one of the first epistles written in early centuries of the Islamic rule. The contents of this epistle compared to the epistles of Sassanid Kings in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh is a subject that is overlooked to date. This study is conducted using the intertextuality method with the purpose of analyzing and comparing Iranians’ political culture in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and Tahir’s letter to Abdullah. There are many constructs in Iranians’ political culture that suggest the presence of an intertextual relation between Tahir’s letter and Sassanid Kings’ epistles in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh; constructs such as protecting ancient houses, paying attention to race and origins, the divinity of kingship, the tradition of covenants, moderation, condemnation of mistrust and lies, consultation with the wise, the tradition of Kings’ meeting with the public, the tradition of ‘the King’s eye and ear’, and instructing one to make use of advice.By referring to ancient references, particularly Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and Tabari’s History, this study seeks to provide answers to the following question: Which constructs of Iranians’ political culture can be compared between Tahir’s letter and Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh?

The present study is conducted using the descriptive-analytical approach by referring to library sources.

Tahir bin Abdullah was an Iranian commander in chief under al-Ma’mun, the Abbasid Caliph, who founded the Tahirid Dynasty in Khorasan. Many sources include information on Iranism or lack of attention to the Iranian culture of the Tahirids. Certain scholars assert the lack of attention paid to the Iranian culture of Tahirid people (see Azartash, 2017, p. 104); meanwhile, some have spoken of their focus and familiarity with the Iranian culture (Zamani, 2018, p. 97; Allahyari, Foroughi Abri, & Morsalpour, 2010, p. 16). However, by referring to Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and using the intertextuality method, this study will reveal numerous similarities between the epistles of Sassanid Kings and Tahir’s letter. A similarity that clearly suggests the Tahirids’ profound knowledge of the Iranian culture. Scholars are aware of the common grounds between many cultural components among various nations and ethnicities; and Tahir’s letter is no exception. Since Tahir was brought up amidst the Islamic Iran’s culture, it would be natural for him to have been influenced by both cultures. Nevertheless, certain advices from Tahir are completely incompatible with the Islamic culture and are deeply rooted in ancient Iranians’ political culture. For instance, the tradition of respecting and protecting ancient houses and paying attention to race and origins entirely stem from Iranians’ political culture which is examined in the present paper. Furthermore, in this study, the following aspects are placed under comparison with the advices of Sassanid Kings based on Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh: the divinity of kingship, condemnation of mistrust and lies, moderation, whitewashing, the tradition of covenants, renouncing gossip, supporting orphaned women and children, the tradition of Kings’ meeting with the public, the tradition of ‘the King’s eye and ear’, and instructing one to make use of advice. The present evidence suggests a conscious or unconscious relation between the contents of Tahir’s letter and Sassanid Kings’ advices in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. Since the entire political components present in Tahir’s letter which are also a mixture of both Iran’s and Islam’s cultures cannot be addressed here, this study focuses on the Iranian dimension of said letter and comparing it with the Iranians’ political culture in Shahnameh. Accordingly, similarities were indeed found between certain components examined in this research with Islam and other religions.

The continuation of Iranians’ political culture and thought has attracted scholars and historians’ attention. The present study is a different look at such continuity. Accordingly, eighteen advices from Tahir to Abdullah were analyzed and compared with ancient Iranians’ political culture in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh based on the intertextuality method. Results showed that as one of the first Iranian dynasties following Islam, Tahirid people were influenced by ancient Iranians’ political culture due to being born and brought up within the Iranian culture, esp. Khorasan which used to be the origin of collecting, maintaining and transferring Iranians’ political culture. Such an influence is clearly reflected in Tahir’s letter to Abdullah. Though Tahir’s letter can be regarded as a mixture of both Iranian and Islamic cultures, the letter points out components that are completely incompatible with Islamic culture. These components include: paying attention to race and origins, maintaining blood and adhering to boundaries between classes, respecting ancient houses, the divinity of kingship, the tradition of ‘the King’s eye and ear’, and the tradition of Kings’ meeting with the public. In addition to the above aspects, certain other components are mentioned in Tahir’s letter which are mutual between the Iranian and Islamic cultures. Yet since Tahirid people were brought up in the Great Khorasan amidst the Iranian culture, it would be more likely for them to be influenced by the Iranian culture. Particularly, evidence suggest their pride in Iranian myth and regarded themselves as decedents of Rostam; they would also reward the people of Shu'ubiyya. The following are certain components that ancient Iranians took pride in: moderation, benevolence, truthfulness, condemnation of lying, refraining from malice, condoning faults, adherence to covenants, consultation with wise, renouncing gossipers, non-compliance with the ungrateful, supporting orphans and making use of advice. These components were emphasized in both Sassanid Kings’ epistles and Tahir’s letter.

Yadegar Zariran is an epic book remained from ancient Iran that is written on rhymed basis and belongs to Parthian age. The aforesaid book is among rhymed book that is written with religious theme. Whereas 2 aspects of “epic” and “religious” of this book is among main properties of this narration due to old time, some people believe that this historical book is Iranian traditional show i.e. Ta’zy-e (passion play). This research intends to analyze and study this book exactly and find out the elements of Ta’zy-e (passion play) or similar drama. Also the this book deals with properties of Ta’zy-e (passion play) as the oldest form of Ta’zy-e (passion play) in Iran. Research methodology of this research with respect to goal is fundeental and with respect to nature is descriptive and analytical and the method of collecting data is documentary based on written references.

There are different ways of thinking in different areas between pre-Islamic and post-Islamic Iranian. Through considering the existing text from ancient times and modern times, some of the differences can be specified. Ardaviraf-nameh (300 C.E.) and Mi'râj Nâma (9 AH) are two spiritual travel books which have been written between these two era with similar content. Through considering the content of these two books, the different ways of thinking of the Iranian during the period of religious transition can be specified. The present study aims at considering this process and tries to concentrate on the role of women.

Ancient Persian people have been associated with wisdom and philosophy as one of the most civilized and thought-provoking nations in history. The reflection of ancient philosophy and wisdom can clearly be seen in the thoughts of Ferdowsi and Suhrawardi. As evidence suggests Ferdowsi and Suhrawardi have access to the common resources such as the Avesta book or Conversation with Zoroastrian intellectuals. Meanwhile, one of the intellectual feedback of Sheikh Ishraq was the book of Shahnameh Ferdowsi. Suhrawardi mentions in his books from the mythological kings just like that he has returned Ferdowsi's poetry to prose. Furthermore, one of the favorite hero of Ferdowsi and Suhrawardi is Keykhosrow. All of the Keykhosrow's features and attributes in Shahnameh Ferdowsi are fit for his characteristics in Suhrawardi's thought. Characteristics such as having a God`s sign, a good human being, fair, wisdom, a mystical journey and his absence, are all applicable in Ferdowsi's and Suhrawardi's thoughts. This research attempts to cite resources, using the American school method, while studying how Suhrawardi is influenced by Ferdowsi's thought; we try to compare Keykhosrow's mystical characteristics in the ideas of Ferdowsi and Suhrawardi. The results of the research indicate that Suhrawardi has been modelled on the mystical character of Keykhosrow from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, and that all of the mystical features of Keykhosrow are equally applicable in the thoughts of Ferdowsi and Suhrawardi.

It was said in the literary, historical and religious texts of ancient Iran that the owl was a blessed bird loved by them. It was said that a large part of the Zoroastrian Avesta was singing on his tongue; so that when he was reading this owl (Avesta) the demons and the Ahrman fled from his annoying cry, For fear of it. The Arabs considered the owl to be an ominous bird in general, absolute, as it suggests misery, misery and death, according to their intellectual and cultural resources. This pessimistic view was gradually leaked to the Persian, and was rooted in the perspective of the optimistic Persians and the writers and poets until they replaced them. The Persian literature and the Iranian poets' literature remained only a small fraction of that usual optimism. After Islam entered Iran in the Sassanian days and their beliefs in the Persian society, In this study, we seek to shed light on the influence of the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs on the Persian poets in pessimism based on the theoretical principles of the French school in comparative literature as we try to show the motives of pessimism in the Persian literature influenced by the Arabs of pre-Islamic. One of the most important findings of this study is that the pope has an optimistic view of the ancient Persians, so that they attributed it to the blessed asceticism and sanctified the sanctification of the gods and raised it to the level of sanctification and worship. But this bird lost its positive face in the Persian literature gradually during the fifth and sixth centuries AH and beyond influenced by the Arabs of the pre-Islamic. We now do not see the optimistic spirit that is required to be present in the Iranian writers and poets except in some very rare cases we often meet negative images of the face of the owl completely.

It was said in the literary, historical and religious texts of ancient Iran that the owl was a blessed bird loved by them. It was said that a large part of the Zoroastrian Avesta was singing on his tongue; so that when he was reading this owl (Avesta) the demons and the Ahrman fled from his annoying cry, For fear of it. The Arabs considered the owl to be an ominous bird in general, absolute, as it suggests misery, misery and death, according to their intellectual and cultural resources. This pessimistic view was gradually leaked to the Persian, and was rooted in the perspective of the optimistic Persians and the writers and poets until they replaced them. The Persian literature and the Iranian poets' literature remained only a small fraction of that usual optimism. After Islam entered Iran in the Sassanian days and their beliefs in the Persian society, In this study, we seek to shed light on the influence of the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs on the Persian poets in pessimism based on the theoretical principles of the French school in comparative literature as we try to show the motives of pessimism in the Persian literature influenced by the Arabs of pre-Islamic. One of the most important findings of this study is that the pope has an optimistic view of the ancient Persians, so that they attributed it to the blessed asceticism and sanctified the sanctification of the gods and raised it to the level of sanctification and worship. But this bird lost its positive face in the Persian literature gradually during the fifth and sixth centuries AH and beyond influenced by the Arabs of the pre-Islamic. We now do not see the optimistic spirit that is required to be present in the Iranian writers and poets except in some very rare cases we often meet negative images of the face of the owl completely.

Main problem of this research was female rulers and their process of getting to power. The importance of this study was in historical point of view about women and also in the idea and circumstances of selecting heirs that became the basics of the political philosophy of next generations. In this way, the goal of the paper was to find favorable contexts and prerequisites to enthronement of a female ruler in ancient Iran that is based on this assumption that only a man from the royal dynasty could assume this position. According to this, these questions were answered that how a woman that had no legal right to assume this position, crowns as the queen of Iran and what contexts prepared such power transfer? This research was done by desk research and analyzing historical data. This way, it was specified that there was three sorts of exceptions in enthronement of women in ancient Iran: 1- a male ruler shared his kingdom with his wife 2- King’s wife (the queen) takes leverage and conspirates to assume the throne 3- Lack of any rightful and male regent that unevitably led to selecting a female ruler

Myth is a reaction to man's inability to cope with his/her infirmities and weaknesses. Mythical elements and characters are rooted in realities that change over time; as cultures are intertwined, myths blend together and new myths are created. Sometimes myths appear with different names but identical functions in different areas. The present study is an analytical-comparative one based on library data; its aim is to show the similarity of the functions of Iranian and Greek myths. Accordingly, they are compared, their common points are shown and the theory of the uniformity of the thoughts of all human beings in the early millenniums are examined. Since myth is the product of human thinking and derived from human nature, there are obviously similarities between the myths of different nations. These nations refer to same phenomena with different names, and the differences between myths can be attributed to the social conditions of each nation.