جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « فقر » در نشریات گروه « اقتصاد »

The main purpose of the current research is to investigate the factors affecting poverty in the provinces of Iran and specifically to focus on the analysis of the effect of tax complexity and fairness. For this purpose, using raw household income-expenditure data, the poverty gap index was calculated for 31 provinces in the period of 2011-2020. Then, by using dynamic panel data method and GMM estimator, the research model was estimated for urban and rural areas. The results of calculating the poverty index indicate that the poverty gap in rural areas (with an average of 38.62 Percent) is larger than in urban areas (with an average of 24.50 Percent). The results of the estimation in urban and rural areas confirm the phrase "poverty brings poverty". Tax fairness in both regions has a negative effect on the poverty gap, and the size of the effect in rural areas is more than three times that of urban areas. Increasing the complexity of the tax system in urban areas is detrimental to the poor and in rural areas it is beneficial to the poor. Inflation in both regions has an undesirable effect on poverty, and of course, in terms of effectiveness, the rate of its undesirable effect on poverty in rural areas is more than double that of urban areas. The increase in urbanization increases poverty in urban areas and the increase in rural population reduces rural poverty. Also, by moving towards goods-oriented production activities and increasing its share ...

In recent years, financial inclusion increasingly has been raised as an important socio-economic issue in the political agenda of many governments and international institutions. Increasing attention to this issue is due to a better understanding of its importance and place in economic development and its key role in poverty reduction and inclusive and sustainable development of societies. Therefore, in this study, the effects of financial inclusion on the poverty and income inequality in 30 provinces of the country during the period of 2006-2020 have been investigated using the Panel Autoregressive with Distributed Lags model. The results of the estimation of the income inequality and poverty model show that financial inclusion in the long and short term has caused a decrease and an increase in the Gini coefficient (income inequality index) and the poverty (poverty index), respectively. In such a way that in the long term, with the increase in the financial inclusion index, the Gini coefficient has decreased by 0.91 percent and poverty by 0.20 percent. It can be argued that the existence of a strong financial market with low risk encourages investments. In addition to improving production and employment, this process improves income distribution and reduces poverty.

The Interaction of Globalization and Innovation on Poverty Abstract :Throughout human history, poverty has been considered one of the undesirable economic and social phenomena of different societies, and it is now recognized as one of the major problems of the world community, and efforts to reduce it have become one of the important goals of the countries of the world . has been Meanwhile, globalization and innovation are tools that can affect poverty and reduce it . Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the mutual effect of globalization and innovation on poverty in selected science - producing countries with per capita income above 20 thousand dollars and below 20 thousand dollars during the period of 2011 - 2019 using panel data techniques and the generalized method of moments ( GMM ) . The research results indicate a negative and significant effect of the mutual effect of globalization and innovation dimensions on poverty in both groups of selected countries during the study period . In addition, the effect of control variables of misery and inequality on poverty in both groups of selected countries is positive and significant . Keywords : Poverty , Globalization , Innovation .

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of commodity group expenditures on the probability of urban and rural household poverty in Iran. First, using household expenditure-income data in 1399, the poverty line was calculated based on the method of 66% of the average per capita expenditure, which is higher than urban households than rural households. In the following, the research model is limited by a dependent variable and is estimated based on pseudo-panel data in logistic regression by random effects method. The results showed that the expenditures of the communication group have the greatest impact on the probability of household poverty in urban and rural areas and the impact of this group of goods in urban areas is greater than rural areas. In contrast, hotel and restaurant costs in urban areas have a greater positive effect on reducing the likelihood of household poverty than in rural areas. But the cost of durable goods in urban areas, transportation in rural areas, and the cost of recreation and cultural affairs do not have a significant effect on the likelihood of household poverty. There is also no significant difference between the impact of furniture and household appliances, clothing and footwear and health care in urban and rural areas. Between social characteristics of the household, variables of gender and education have a negative effect on the probability of poverty and variables of household dimension and marital status have a direct effect on the probability of poverty of urban households, but these variables have no significant effect on the probability of poverty of rural households.

According to principles 29, 31, and 43 of the Constitution of Iran, one of the goals of the Islamic Republic is to deal with poverty and economic and social inequality in the country, and for this purpose, two strategies have been followed in parallel after the revolution. One of these strategies was the extension and side assistance of the government to fight against poverty and deprivation. In this context, the government implemented policies and plans in the form of economic and social development plans. Therefore, according to this necessity, the aim of the current research is to investigate the impact of economic growth on poverty: comparative studies of the first and third development plans. The results of the estimation of the research model based on the autoregression method with distributed lag indicate that economic growth (from 1978 to 2021) has a positive and significant effect on poverty in the long term, while economic growth (the first and third development plans) and oil rents have a negative and significant effect on poverty, and social security expenses have no effect on poverty in the long term. Therefore, it can be said that economic growth alone is not enough to deal with poverty, but along with the dynamic growth process, improved infrastructure for society (including the poor) and institutional reforms should be implemented in parallel.

High poverty rates limit people's ability to meet their daily needs. Therefore, it has attracted the attention of policymakers and governments. In this study, unlike previous studies, the effect of poverty on financial development has been investigated. In addition, the current research seeks to answer the question of whether the poverty on financial development depends on the level of trade openness of countries. To achieve the aforementioned goals, a threshold panel model has been used for 25 developing countries from 2002 to 2020, and also to avoid the endogeneity problem, the 2SLS method and the use of instrumental variables have been used. The results indicate that as long as the degree of commercial openness is less than 65%, the increase in poverty causes a sharper decrease in financial development in the economy, and when the degree of openness is greater than 65%, the increase in poverty causes a smaller decrease in financial development. Because in the conditions of openness, the bottlenecks caused by poverty can be compensated by increasing the degree of openness and financial opportunities of an open economy. In other words, increasing the degree of openness of the economy reduces the limiting effects of poverty on financial development. Also, the model estimation results show that the logarithm of per capita income, savings and population density have positive and significant effects on financial development.

Poverty and economic inequality is a permanent problem that has always created challenges for societies. In this study, the role of poverty as one of the indicators of economic inequality in the spread of financial development has been investigated. In addition, the current research seeks to answer the question whether the impact of poverty on financial development depends on the level of trade openness of countries or depends on other factors. To achieve the aforementioned goals, a threshold panel model has been used for 35 developing and developed countries during the time period of 2000-2021. Also, in order to avoid the endogeneity problem, the 2SLS method and the use of instrumental variables have been used. The results indicate that as long as the degree of commercial openness is less than 71%, the increase in poverty causes a sharper decrease in financial development in the economy, and when the degree of openness is greater than 71%, the increase in poverty causes a smaller decrease in financial development. Also, the results of the model estimation show that the logarithm of per capita income, savings and population density have a positive and significant effect on financial development. The general conclusion indicates that increasing the degree of openness of the economy reduces the limiting effects of poverty on the expansion of financial development.

Microfinance is an effort to alleviate poverty and improving the living conditions of low-income groups through the provision of micro-financial services. Hence, the present study investigates the effect of microfinance on the possibility of getting out of urban and rural households' poverty in Iran. For this purpose, firstly, based on the method of 66% of the average per capita household expenditure, the poverty line was calculated in general and provincial. Initial processing demonstrated that the amount of poor households among households with financial facilities is much lower than deprived households of these facilities. Finally, the model was estimated based on pseudo-panel data and random effects in logistic regression in a separate format throughout the country, urban and rural areas. The results show the reverse effect of financial facilities on the probability of households' poverty, while the size of the favorable effect of financing in urban areas is more than rural areas. Also, being male, the age and education level of a household's head has a reverse effect, and the square of the age of a households' head and the size of the household have a direct effect on the probability of poverty, while the favorable effect of education and age, and the unfavorable effect of household size on the probability of poverty in urban areas is more than rural areas.

Reducing poverty, as the most important goal of social policy, includes aspects beyond the economy and the market and looks at different aspects of quality of life. In this article, we are looking for an answer to the question of what the relative deprivation has to do with the quality of life. The statistical population consists of people aged 18 and over who lived in Tehran in 1400. Survey research method and information has been collected by face-to-face interview technique in the form of a questionnaire. The sample size is 404 people and the samples were selected by systematic cluster type probability sampling method. Evaluate the hypotheses, correlation coefficient test (Pearson, Spearman), multivariate regression and path analysis were used. The findings show that: By reducing the relative deprivation of citizens, the quality of life increases and vice versa. If the material well-being, welfare values, family income and social class of citizens increase, the quality of life also increases. Also, the family's income and savings have decreased during the outbreak of Covid-19. So it can be said: the right to enjoy equal opportunity has a direct impact on the well-being of citizens and this impact is through the provision of services or income. Since poverty and ill health are two sides of the same coin, And poverty itself creates deprivation, inequality and insecurity, Therefore, considering people as equal in front of the law, creating equal opportunities for everyone in the form of distributing facilities and resources equally, can provide a suitable basis for realizing justice and increasing the quality of life in society.

Under the present complex and globalized economic system, it is necessary to adopt new methods of production and value creation to increase economic growth. The theoretical and empirical concept of economic complexity is a relatively new phenomenon in economic analysis and measures the complexity of a country's productive structure, which reflects its diversity, i.e. the number of products it exports and the ubiquity of those products. Economic complexity is a comprehensive and effective way to understand key issues in countries development processes, which has created new opportunities for a comprehensive review of countries' economic development processes. In addition, a country with a highly complex economy has a competitive edge in the global economy and individuals living in a complex economy have more employment opportunities and they have enough skills and knowledge. In current research, the effect of economic complexity on poverty in developing countries during the years 2000-2021 has been studied using the generalized moment’s method. The findings indicate that increasing economic complexity reduces poverty. Therefore, a 1% increase in the economic complexity index reduces poverty by (-0.530). Furthermore, the higher the economic growth, the greater the effect of reducing economic complexity on poverty. At the same time, economic complexity leads to poverty reduction in countries that experience lower levels of income inequality. Other results indicate that increased financial development, economic growth and democracy reduces poverty. On the other hand, increasing the level of income inequality will also lead to more poverty. To reduce poverty, governments can increase the share of complex, diversified products from exports through appropriate policies and help boost high-sophisticated products in the economy by giving tax breaks to high-tech companies and in this way, achieve the goal of reducing poverty.

IntroductionToday, charities play an important part in diminishing poverty for the underprivileged in marginalized regions and are taken notice of by the authorities and different strata of people. Nevertheless, it seems that the charitable process has suffered tangible and intangible harms, bringing it face-to-face with challenges in these regions when endeavoring to perform services. Neglecting such harms and challenges may lead to deviations in performance and results in charity work as a whole in society. Hence, it is vital to study the various aspects of such activities, identify challenges in these regions, and evaluate charitable services in marginalized regions. In this research, efforts have been made to study the lived experiences of people involved in charity work in marginalized regions using a qualitative and sociological analytical approach. The research aims to identify challenges related to charity work in marginalized regions using the qualitative research method and conducting in-depth qualitative interviews with benefactors and individuals who have experienced charitable work in these regions. This research seeks to answer the questions of what experiences benefactors have in charity work in marginalized regions and their descriptions of it. Also, it asks the question of what they consider to be the most important challenges in charity work in these regions.MethodologyThe present research has been conducted using the qualitative method and a phenomenological approach. The researchers have conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews in an effort to identify and study the challenges faced in charity work in marginalized regions by understanding the descriptions and interpretations of the participants. Eventually, 17 men and women who had the experience of charity work for the period of at least one year in a charitable institution and registered NGOs were interviewed. The interviewees included 6 men and 11 women in the 22-36 age bracket. All the participants were selected using purposeful snowball sampling until data saturation. Furthermore, efforts were made to select interviewees from among active benefactors in different parts of the country, such as the marginalized areas of the cities of Tehran, Urmia, Bandar Abbas, Rasht, Isfahan, Mashhad, etc, aiming to observe maximum diversity and interview knowledgeable participants. Each interview lasted for the duration of 25-50 minutes. Prior to the interview, complete explanations were provided about the research and its objectives to comply with research ethics. The consent of the participants was obtained and interviews were recorded. Data analysis was performed immediately following each interview. The recorded files were initially transcribed and then analyzed. The 7-step Colaizzi method of data analysis was used. FindingsOverall, the findings of the research, which are the outcome of the analysis of interviews conducted with the benefactors, were classified in two main categories. The main category is the “internal and regional characteristics”, including the three subcategories of “the space and fabric of marginalized areas”, “vicious circle of poverty and marginalization”, and “internalized feelings of deprivation and neediness”. The second category is the “structure of charitable organizations”, which refers to the challenges and welfare issues in marginalized regions, and includes the subcategories of the “domination of traditional and religious models over charitable work”, “lack of models and perspectives”, “charity as housing”, “relations between benefactors and the government”, and “reciprocal distrust and lack of interaction with the residents”. The findings of the research suggest that, in many cases, benefactors perform charity work for personal satisfaction and spiritual peace rather than providing support for the deprived. Therefore, is not central for the results of their actions to lead to empowerment and self-sufficiency. Furthermore, the findings of the research indicate that the lack of trust between the benefactors and local residents is an important issue. This has been categorized under “reciprocal distrust and lack of interaction with the residents”. Also, the subcategories of “lack of models and perspectives” and “charity as housing” are some of the structural challenges in charity work in marginalized regions.Discussion and conclusionOverall, the findings of the present research indicate that charities and charity work requires review and reform in Iran. Under the present circumstances, such activities lead mostly to the reproduction of poverty and marginalization rather than the eradication of poverty and marginalization. This process creates challenges for the benefactors and charities, while its continuation may also lead to further social harms in these regions. Neglecting the empowerment of the deprived population, their education, and allowing them eventual independence and self-sufficiency are some of the other challenges in charity work. According to nearly all the interviewees, a large number of people expect to receive financial assistance for their livelihood from benefactors. As such, individuals become dependent and make no efforts to leave the cycle of poverty and deprivation, considering support, particularly financial support, to be the duty of the government and charities. It is, therefore, essential to focus more attention on charity work with specialized actions and expertise, benefit from social workers, compile a model and provide perspective, and concentrate on marginalized regions to provide long-term services by improving relations between the benefactors, local residents, and regional authorities.

The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of commodity group expenditures on the probability of urban household poverty at different levels of wealth. In this article, using the data of the household expenditure-income plan for the year 2019, the household poverty line was calculated based on the 66% average per capita expenditure method. The findings of the estimation of the research model based on pseudo-tabular data and random effects method in logistic regression in three levels of wealth show that the largest number of households are in the middle category of wealth. The gender and age variables of the head of the household have a greater effect on reducing the probability of poverty at the middle level, and also at low levels of wealth, the increase in educational levels reduces the probability of poverty to a greater extent. The direct effect of the household dimension is greater at low levels of wealth on the probability of poverty. Expenditure on food, drink and tobacco, housing and transportation at a low level of wealth has a stronger effect on increasing the probability of household poverty. Among the expenses of different commodity groups, communication expenses have the most positive effect on the probability of urban household poverty, which is greater at low levels of wealth. Entertainment expenses - cultural affairs in the low and high level of wealth do not have a significant effect on the probability of household poverty.

Nearly half of the world’s population, including four out of five people living below the poverty line, live in rural areas. Extreme poverty is concentrated mainly in rural areas. Rural people also generally have less access to education, health and other essential services. Rural development is an important and key strategy to achieve sustainable development in many developing countries. According to the World Bank, rural development is defined as “a strategy aiming at the improvement of economic and social living conditions, focusing on a specific group of poor people in a rural area. It assists the poorest group among the people living in rural areas to benefit from development Villages are the main focus of Afghanistan's economy because a large part of the Afghan population (approximately 71%) lives and works in rural areas so that out of the total population of Afghanistan, which reached 32.9 million people in 2019, 23.4 million lived in villages. In fact, 70% of the total population of Afghanistan lives in villages where the rate of poverty is 61%.
Therefore, new job opportunities can be found in the villages, and one of the most important grounds to achieve sustainable development in Afghanistan is the focus on the development of villages, which brings regional development. In other words, it can be acknowledged that regional development in Afghanistan depends on the development of villages.

Therefore, institutional economics was used in this dissertation as a suitable theoretical framework to analyze the problems of developing countries, including Afghanistan. Institutions are made up of formal constraints (rules, laws, constitutions), informal constraints (norms of behavior, conventions, and self-imposed codes of conduct), and their enforcement characteristics. All potentials in the region should be used by utilizing the institutional approach and capacity to achieve sustainable development in rural areas

Hence, the library-documentary method was used to collect data. The indicators of sustainable rural development were initially extracted by studying and evaluation the indicators formulated by organizations, international assemblies, and reliable papers. To localize these indicators according to the rural areas of Afghanistan, a five-point Likert scale questionnaire was designed, and an initial list of indicators was agreed upon by 30 experts of rural development in Afghanistan. Then, the most important ones were extracted and in the second step, the hierarchical analysis method was employed to determine the priority and importance of the indicators. Finally, a pairwise comparison questionnaire was completed by 30 participants and the weight and importance of these factors were determined using Expert Choice software.

The findings indicated that the economic environment with an importance factor of 0.34 accounts for the first priority of factors affecting the rural development of Afghanistan and the second, third, and fourth priority is assigned to the institutional environment with an importance factor of (34%), social environment (20%), and ecological environment (13%), respectively. The inconsistency rate of pairwise comparisons at this level was equal to 0.07, reflecting the validity of the results.

Thus, the first step to achieve sustainable rural development is to make changes in the economic structure of Afghanistan to create high economic growth and increase productivity, employment, and income. Agriculture is the main element of providing livelihood in the economic structure of rural areas of different countries, including Afghanistan. Moreover, it is the most important and the only economic element of villages in most development programs. Since traditional agricultural activities are performed in most rural areas of Afghanistan, the production level of agricultural products is very low compared to other countries throughout the world. It was found that the current production model of this country in the agricultural sector cannot create the economic growth necessary to achieve sustainable development, which requires a fundamental evaluation of the adopted solutions.
The second priority of rural development was found to be the institutional environment. According to the findings of this paper, the most important aspect of the institutional environment is good governance. Afghanistan was among the five countries that experienced the highest average annual compound growth rate (CAGR = 2.33%) in the governance index between 1996 and 2020; however, the very poor performance of this country in important sub-indicators such as "political stability and absence of violence and terrorism", "rule of law", and "corruption control" did not lead to a change in the development situation of this country in general and rural development in particular.
The social environment is the third priority of rural development in Afghanistan. Literacy and education were identified as the most important aspects of this environment and accounted for the first priority. With regard to the high rate of illiteracy in Afghanistan, the government must invest to provide suitable opportunities for public education and increase people's skills and awareness.
The environment accounts for the fourth priority in rural development. Accordingly, the experts introduced agriculture as the most important priority of the environment. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers and poisons and inappropriate use of production inputs to increase performance in Afghanistan in the last two decades have destroyed the environment and doubled the importance of attention to the stability of the agricultural system, continuity of production, and preservation of natural resources.

Economic sanctions are a low-cost tool that replaces military action with a high economic, political and human cost. The severity of the effects of sanctions depends on the degree of dependence of the target economy on the outside world, the cooperation of the international community with the ones imposing sanctions, and the potential ability to substitute domestic production with imports. If domestic supply is sufficiently resilient, sanctions act, such as an import substitution policy, can lead to higher growth and more employment. Otherwise, sanctions will act as a lack of domestic supply. This study evaluates the welfare effects of sanctions on basic items - whose rising prices affect living standards. We use a multiple choice model and logit function, the income and cost effects of sanctions as well as the impact of exchange rate changes on the price of basic goods on the welfare standard and the probability of households joining the poor group are considered. The results show that, due to the inelastic domestic supply, the possibility of substituting imports is limited, so the cost effects are dominant for the year 2019, in the effective exchange rate scenario, poverty growth is estimated at %2.2 (about 1828 thousand people, and in the official exchange rate scenario, poverty growth is 3.1 percent (and about 2575 thousand People have joined the poor group).

The main goals of this article are to measure pro-poor growth in urban areas of Iran using the Chanona (2020) matrix and to rank the categories of activities and occupational groups in urban areas of Iran based on poverty growth using the Euclidean TOPSIS technique. For this purpose, cost and income data of urban households in Iran during the period 2013-2019 has been used. The results show that during the period under review, only the period of 2016-2017, both growth and income distribution have reduced poverty and the growth has been pro-poor. However, in the period of 2015-2016, poverty has increased and growth has been Immiserizing. In other years, the Chanona index has shown an increase in poverty. The results of the TOPSIS model also show that among the categories of activities "financial and insurance activities" and among the occupational groups; The "Administrative and Office Staff" group ranks first in poverty alleviation. Therefore, to reduce poverty, it is recommended to pay attention to income growth and redistribution in economic planning and policy-making. Because paying attention only to growth such as the period 2015-2016 can increase poverty in Iran. In addition, although the improvement in income distribution can be such that poverty is reduced even in the absence of growth; But in other one-year periods examined, it can be seen that the lack of attention to growth has led to an increase in poverty in Iran and reduce in inequality alone cannot lead to a reduction in poverty

Household poverty is one of the factors that hinder the development of societies. Poverty is not only destructive from the economic dimension but also from the social dimension has adverse effects on society. To deal with this phenomenon, it is important to identify and investigate the factors affecting it. While it is possible that depending on the level of wealth of households, the type of effect of factors and the severity of their impact on poverty is different; therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of each factor on the probability of poverty at different levels of wealth. For this purpose, using the data of the cost and income plan of urban households in 2020 and based on the method of 66% of the average per capita household expenditure in each province, poor households were separated from non-poor. Also, households in each province were placed in one of three defined groups of wealth. The results of estimating the research model based on pseudo panel data and random effect logistic regression at three levels of wealth indicate that age, education and masculinity are in the middle category of wealth that includes the largest number of households. The head of the household has the opposite effect and the square of age, the head of the household and the size of the household have a direct effect on the probability of poverty. As the level of wealth of households increases, the intensity of the desired effect of education on the probability of household poverty decreases. The negative effect of the household dimension on the probability of poverty moving from the lower to the upper classes of wealth also diminishes. In addition, in the nonlinear relationship between age and the probability of poverty of households by moving from lower levels to higher levels of wealth, the minimum probability of poverty will appear at higher ages, respectively. Marriage of the head in the lower category, and gender and marriage of the head in the upper category of wealth have no significant effect on the probability of poverty.

One of the most important goals of the third millennium is to promote gender equality. This means that women should have equal opportunities to develop their talents. But the statistical evidence clearly shows continuous significant differences at the level of education, health and, most importantly, income between developing and developing countries. Economists have proposed different theories and models to explain the reasons for the gap between developing and developed countries. These theories attribute the gaps to institutional factors such as education and health. Therefore, given that gender poverty is inherent, understanding the corresponding interactions is essential to designing and implementing policies that help reduce the gender gap and free women from poverty. New institutionalists believe that an institutional change affect their choices and, consequently, the economic performance of the society in the long run by changing the motivational structure of individuals. Among various institutional factors, democracy along with factors such as physical capital and human capital seem to play prominent roles in the process of development and poverty reduction of countries. Explaining the concept of democracy, Jeremy Bentham states that each member of the society should be considered as one person. In fact, the basic premise of democracy is the participation of citizens in decision-making and the equality of all the members of the society, far from gender gaps. Accordingly, it seems that the democratic or authoritarian nature of the ruling structure can be a significant factor in determining the status of development and poverty. Many political scolars have tried to prove the hypothesis that development increases the demand for maximizing political rights. Indeed, the traditional argument that development paves the way for democracy was first put forward by Seymour Martin Lip set et al (1959) and then by Rueschmeyer et al. (1992), Daya Mond (1992), Lip set et al. (1993). According to this argument, high welfare promotes democratic institutions and moderates social contradictions by creating a broad middle class and eliminating social gaps. According to this view, the realization of democracy is related to the level of economic development, and a country is likely to achieve democracy when it has undergone stages of economic development or its citizens have received a certain level of education. It is also claimed that the factors that contributed to the rise of democratic regimes in the 1970s and 1980s, most of which were authoritarian, were the high levels of economic recovery that led to the expansion of literacy, education, and urbanization to the middle class. It strengthened pro-democracy values ​​and behaviors. Democracy is based on the luxury of goods and can only be used after the difficult task of development has been completed. In the opposite view that democracy is the agent of development, a group of thinkers such as Amartya Sen emphasize that freedom and democracy are parts of development. It has been  also pointed out that sustainable economic growth occurs only in democracies,  and that democracy is a factor in the elimination of gender gaps and the better functioning of the economy. In the present study, a comparative analysis is performed of poverty reduction through education, income and health gap indicators with an emphasis on democracy. It is done by examining the two perspectives raised during the period 20-20-2004 and using the panel soft transfer threshold (PSTR) approach. The questions to answer are ‘Can differences between men and women in terms of wages, education, and life expectancy considering the system of democracy and autocracy in countries with a very high human development index have an impact on poverty reduction?’ and ‘In which category of countries is this effect greater?’ According to the obtained results, the variables of educational gap, income and health have positive relationships with the poverty gap index in both groups of the studied countries. The coefficients of variables in countries with very high human development index are close to zero. According to the ranking of this group of countries in terms of human development, the values of these coefficients are justified. Also, the coefficients of variables of the type of government system in both groups of countries have no effect on the difference between the study groups. The main factor in reducing poverty is reaching the desired level of development, which means rejecting the view that democracy is the factor of development. In addition to the fact that the traditional structure in developing societies can always create many obstacles such as traditionalism, conservatism and self-righteousness, in the path of political development, the accelerated movement of modernization has also created gaps in the society such as generation gap and identity crisis. Therefore, in general, the main factor in reducing the poverty gap in a country is the improvement of economic and development indicators, including gender, education, income and health gaps; once the gap indicators are improved, democracy will follow.

In this article, we try to examine how to eliminate poverty and inequality throughthe negative income tax system. In this study, the rate of poverty and inequality iscalculated through Kakwani poverty indicators and Gini coefficient inequality index,respectively. Negative income tax rate (0.5) for the income distance to the povertyline, is considered and the statistical sample of the study includes the cost andincome of 12961 urban households in Iran in 2018. The results of this study showthat the plan to impose a negative income tax (0.5) will reduce the povertycalculated based on the Kakovani index from 0.54 to 0.24 which shows a decreaseof about 0.55%. The Gini coefficient decreases from 0.38 before the policy to 0.17,which means a 55% reduction in inequality. On the other hand, to completelyeradicate poverty in Iran, according to the data of 2018, there must impose anincreased tax rate of 60% on the income surplus of non-poor people up to thepoverty line.