جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « chlorophyll a » در نشریات گروه « آب و خاک »

Environmental stresses are among the major limiting factors of crop production at the global level. Environmental stresses affect the biochemical and physiological processes of plants, leading to reduced crop yield, and in severe cases, even plant death. Among the abiotic stresses, salinity stress ranks second after drought stress as a limiting factor for the yield of agricultural crops worldwide (Gupta & Huang, 2014). The range of saline ecosystems is very wide, extending from lowlands to mountain elevations. In total, about 1 billion hectares of the world's land (seven percent of the world's land) and about 1.5 million hectares of agricultural land in the world (five percent of the world's land) are affected by salinity (Balasubramaniam et al, 2023). Considering that different bean cultivars exhibit varying levels of susceptibility to salinity at different stages, it is essential to study the effects of salinity levels on the ecophysiological characteristics of different bean cultivars. Evaluating different plants under various salinity stress levels in greenhouse conditions allows for the possibility of multi-season cultivation and faster screening in the cultivars selection process for identifying and continuing research on salt-tolerant cultivars, which holds great importance. Under these conditions, by measuring certain parameters related to salinity at the growth stage and before harvesting, salt-tolerant cultivars can be identified with a high degree of probability, thus allowing for a more informed selection process. The lack of comprehensive information on the effects of salinity on the physiological aspects of beans, as well as the existence of a significant number of unknown cultivars in terms of salt tolerance, makes extensive research in this field unavoidable. Therefore, this research was conducted to investigate The effects of different levels of salinity on the yield and some physiological characteristics of different pinto bean cultivars, with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of salt tolerance in these plants and potentially identifying cultivars with improved salt tolerance for further breeding efforts.

Experimental model
To evaluate the yield and some physiological characteristics of four different pinto bean cultivars under salinity stress, an experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the Research Greenhouse of Payame Noor University of Gandaman (Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province). The experiment was arranged as a split-plot design within a completely randomized design with three replications. The first factor was Four levels of salinity including S0 (2), S1 (10), S2 (20), and S3 (30) (dS/m). where S0 was the Hoagland's solution as the control, and other salinity levels were the result of mixing sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) at a ratio of 20 to 1 moles in the Hoagland's solution, respectively. The second factor comprised four pinto bean cultivars used were Kousha, Saleh, Ghaffar, and Talash. The experimental units included 40 × 40 cm pots, 35 cm in height, containing a completely homogenized washed sand. Due to lack of absorption and less the plants' need for a complete nutrient solution, the pots were irrigated every other day with a solution containing half the concentration of nutrients found in the Hoagland's solution (Dehdari et al, 2005). Two weeks after establishment, the plants were thinned from 15 to 8 plants per pot to achieve the desired plant density. From the 20th day after sowing (the four-leaf stage of the plants), salinity levels were gradually applied to acclimate the plants, such that all pots, except for the control level, received incremental salinity levels of 25% of each level in four irrigation shifts, thereby applying the total salinity treatment for each level.

Collecting and preparing plant samples:

The salinity treatment continued at the specified ratios until the end of the growth stage. In this study, the traits of chlorophyll content, carotenoids, and proline levels were measured throughout the growth season; samples were collected at the flowering stage (60 days after sowing) by taking five fully grown young leaves from the upper parts of each experimental unit. To measure the content of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and proline, the methods of Arnon (1940), Gross (1991), and Pacquiao and Lecourier (1997) were used, respectively; the absorption of light from the extract was recorded using a spectrophotometer (SHIMADZO 54A). At the end of the growth stage (100 days after sowing), to measure the biological yield, grain yield, and harvest index, six plants in each pot were randomly selected, harvested, and the above parameters were measured and calculated. Seed protein was calculated using the Bradford method (Bradford, 1976) with a Kjeldahl apparatus, using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as the standard.Statistical Analysis Statistical Analysis Finally, data were analyzed using SAS software (version 9.1). Mean comparisons were conducted using Duncan's multiple range test at a 5% probability level.

In this study, all the examined traits were affected by salinity; increasing salinity levels decreased chlorophyll content, biological yield, harvest index, and grain yield in all studied cultivars. Cultivars under salinity stress maintained high levels of carotenoids, increased proline, and seed protein content, which mitigated the adverse effects of salinity stress. Salinity stress disrupts plant metabolism, affecting the grain filling process and reducing the translocation of assimilates due to secondary drought conditions. This disruption leads to the abortion of flowers and newly formed seeds in the pods, ultimately resulting in decreased grain yield in beans. (Gupta et al, 2014).

Environmental stresses such as drought and salinity have inhibitory effects on growth and plant development under stress, leading to reductions in yield and harvest index; this is associated with decreased levels of photosynthetic pigments and the remobilization of photosynthetic materials during grain filling. In the present study, cultivars under salinity stress maintained high carotenoid levels, increased proline, and seed protein content, mitigating the adverse effects of salinity stress; the Koosha cultivar showed higher yield compared to other cultivars in salinity stress and a lower yield reduction. Therefore, considering the different cultivars' responses to salinity stress and susceptibility of beans to salinity conditions and secondary drought stress, further research on different cultivars under diverse climatic conditions in Iran is necessary.

The study of the climatic condition of Iran shows that arid and semi-arid areas are often scattered in the central areas of Iran, and salinity in these areas is one of the limiting factors for crop production. Fenugreek is a genus of Fabaceae family and one of the important products of semi-arid regions. This medicinal plant is used in the treatment of a wide range of diseases such as diabetes. Fenugreek seeds and its leaves are rich in minerals, protein and carbohydrates. The expansion of fenugreek cultivation in the world has caused this plant to face abiotic environmental stresses during the growing season. Silica plays a role in reducing the amount of sweating and preventing the side paths of sweating. Therefore, this research was conducted with the aim of evaluating the effect of silica fertilizer in increasing salinity tolerance of fenugreek plants.

The present study was conducted in order to investigate the effect of silica fertilizer on some morphological and physiological characteristics of edible and medicinal fenugreek plant in the fall of 2022 in Behbahan city in the form of pots in the form of a completely randomized design with three replications in the open air. The treatments included salt stress at three levels (0, 75 and 150 mM sodium chloride) and silica fertilizer at two levels (0 and 3 g/l) and a total of 18 pots. Fenugreek seeds are obtained from a reputable seed store (Rahimi vegetable seed store in Behbahan city). Fenugreek seeds were planted in small plastic pots with a height of 7 cm and a diameter of 8 cm filled with garden soil, leaf soil and perlite (ratio 1:1:1) so that finally there were five plants in each pot.

The results showed that in the fenugreek plant, the maximum root length (6.95 cm) and the dry weight of the aerial parts (0.046 g) in the treatment without salt stress (control) and without the use of silica fertilizer and the lowest root length (2.63 cm) ) and the dry weight of aerial organs (0.03 g) was observed in the treatment of 150 mM salinity stress and without the use of silica fertilizer. Also, the decrease in chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm ratio) in response to salinity stress was lower than the decrease observed in salinity stress without using silica fertilizer. In the salinity stress of 150 mM and the use of silica fertilizer 3 g/liter, the amount of chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm ratio) was 0.09 more than in the treatment of salinity stress of 150 mM and no silica fertilizer. The highest value of greenness index (SPAD) was obtained in the condition without salinity stress (11.60) and the lowest value was obtained in the salinity stress of 150 mM (2.30), which was significant at the five percent level. Stress causes disturbances in the path of electron transfer and destruction of tissues related to photosynthesis, and in this way, it prevents the optimal energy consumption of the plant. In this study, silica treatment reduced the negative effects of severe salinity on root length, wet and dry weight of shoot and chlorophyll fluorescence, and reduced the harmful effects of salinity on fenugreek plants.

In this experiment, it was observed that the application of silica fertilizer in severe salinity stress significantly reduced the amount of chlorophyll fluorescence in comparison with its non-application. The present study showed that adding silicone fertilizers to saline soils reduces the negative effects of salinity stress in fenugreek plants.

pollution of water resources and the increase of pollution in natural water resources such as lakes and wetlands, considering their fragile nature, as one of the crises facing the country, in addition to the inflow factors, depends on the quantitative situation in aquatic ecosystem itself. On the other hand, the important problem of Anzali wetland as the area studied in this research is the increasing pollution of its water in the fragile conditions of climate change. Therefore, considering the main problem raised for Anzali wetland, the aim of the research was to investigate the water quality index in the inlet streams of Anzali wetland. .

in this research, in order to collect the required information in the period of 2019-2019 in the study area of Anzali wetland, the monthly rainfall statistics of different meteorological stations from the General Directorate of Meteorology and Statistics and geological maps and the characteristics and values of the hydraulic coefficients, wetland extension limits, possible observation station data, seasonal and permanent rivers' measured rivers’ flow data, tolls and rivers' location limits were obtained from the regional water joint stock company. In this study, using the water quality analysis code (UWQV), the amount of water quality changes in the seasonal periods of Anzali lagoon was analyzed in Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 images.

The average spatial distribution of the green spectrum (chlorophyll index) in different seasons showed that its numbers indicate the status of the quality index and chlorophyll, so that it is equal to 0.15 in autumn, 0.13 in winter, 0.06 in spring, and the summer season was equal to 0.13. The statistical results of the discharge of the rivers leading to the Anzali wetland, in all the coordinates of the lagoon lake, a similar seasonal trend was observed between the discharges due to the similarity of the feeding catchment basin, and this is while each of the average figures is 27 respectively. 0.0, 0.23, 0.08, 0.08 and 0.23 have shown the standard deviation of coordinate distribution.

Analyzing the water quality of Anzali wetland based on the changes in the chlorophyll index, and the changes in the amount of chlorophyll from one season to another showed a strong fluctuation, which confirmed the results of this research compared to other researchers. Also, the state of water health sediments shows a strong fluctuation in autumn, winter, summer, and spring seasons to a large extent.

In recent decades, agricultural production has relied heavily on the use of chemical inputs, which has led to major environmental problems. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has led to the destruction of water and soil resources, reducing the population and diversity of soil microbes, water and air pollution, increasing the resistance of pests and pathogenes to various chemical pesticides, etc. One of the solutions to this problem is to use the principles of sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture is an integrated system based on ecological principles and in this system, plant residues, animal manures, organic and bio-fertilizers are used instead of chemical compounds such as fertilizers and pesticides. In addition to supplying nutrients in the soil, it leads to weed and pest controlling and increases the microbe’s biodiversity in soil. Useful soil microorganisms such as mycorrhizal and endophytic fungi play an important role in the nutrients cycling, especially phosphorus and some other trace elements in ecosystems and plant protection against environmental and agricultural stresses. The fungal hyphae often extend into the portion of the soil that is not penetrated by roots or root hairs, and led to increase the absorption of water and nutrients for the plant. Endophyte fungus Piriformospora indica also has a wide range of host plants by colonizing their roots and stimulates the growth of its host plants and increases their yield. The use of these fungi in nutrient-poor soils increases the growth and yield of agricultural products along with reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is an annual herb of the Apiaceae or Umbelliferae families, native to the Mediterranean region that has been cultivated since human antiquity. In addition to its oral application, this plant also has healing properties and is also considered as a medicinal plant. Coriander consumption is recommended in the treatment of various infectious diseases such as typhoid fever and various diseases in general. The shoots of this plant contain essential oils and active ingredients, and decanol is the main components of its essential oil. Whereas global approaches to the production of medicinal plants are aimed at improving the quantity and quality of the active ingredient of medicinal plants, healthy nutrition of these plants through eco-friendly approaches such as the use of biological fertilizers, is the most consistent with the goals of sustainable agriculture and leads to improved quantitative and qualitative yield of these plants. Accordingly, the study of the effect of beneficial soil fungi (mycorrhizal and endophytic) on vegetables such as coriander due to their high consumption by humans seems necessary. Therefore, in this study the effect of inoculation of two species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Diversispora versiformis ‌ and Rhizophagus irregularis) and one species of endophytic fungus (Piriformospora indica) individually and/or in combinations on the chemical composition and production of coriander essential oil was investigated.

The treatments were included single fungus inoculation (RI: R. irregularis, DV: D. versiformis, PI: P. indica), integrated fungal inoculations (PI+DV, PI+RI, RI+DV and PI+RI+DV), positive control treatment (with urea fertilizer and triple superphosphate, without fungus), and the negative control (no chemical fertilizer, no fungus). The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with four replications in greenhouse conditions. Fresh and dry weight of roots and shoots, percentage of root colonization, leaf phenol, antioxidant compounds, carotenoids, total chlorophyll and essential oil were measured in coriander plant.

The results showed that the effect of all three fungal species (mycorrhiza and endophyte) both separately and in combination on the measured parameters was significant (p <0.01). Combined treatment of three fungi (PI + RI + DV) showed the highest yield in fresh and dry weight of shoot part by 8.62% and 17.94%, respectively. In the case of fresh and dry weight of root part, DV treatment had the best performance by 22.66% and 48.04%, respectively. The root colonization increase (91.75%) in PI + RI, phenol (72.5%) in RI + DV, antioxidant componds (11.81%), total chlorophyll (7.81%) and carotenoids (5.87%) in PI, and essential oil yield (107.2%) in PI + DV were recorded. All increases reported above are in comparison with negative control treatment.

According to the results of this study, in order to achieve higher yield in coriander, it is better to use single treatments of mycorrhizal fungi. Also, based on the results of this experiment, to enhance the performance of mycorrhizal fungi to improve the growth and development of coriander, especially to improve the yield of essential oil, it is better to use a combination of mycorrhizal fungi and endophyte. It should be noted that the results of this experiment were obtained in greenhouse conditions and to finally confirm the effectiveness of the fungi used in this experiment, therefore further studies should be performed at the field conditions along with measuring more traits to provide clearer and applied results.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.) is a high-yielding pseudo-cereal crop, belonging to the Chenopodiaceae plants, shows tolerance to salinity stress. As a chenopod plant, it could not establish a symbiosis relation with mycorrhizal fungi, but there are evidences that the Serendipitaindica (endophytic fungus) could enter the root and more likely improves the tolerance of quinoa against salt stress. This study was performed as a pot experiment in Completely Randomized Factorial Designs (CRFD) with three replications in a sterilized sandy loam soil. Experimental factors included two levels of S. indica (inoculated and non-inoculated) and salinity levels of 1.47 (initial electrical conductivity of soil), 5, 10, 20 and 30 dS/m. The interaction effect of salinity stress and fungal inoculation was significant for studied traits in both shoot and root (P <0.05), except for the concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in the root. The concentrations of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium, growth traits and percentage of root colonization in quinoa were significantly reduced by increasing salinity levels (P <0.05). S. indica increased root dry weight in control, 5 and 10 dS/m by 23.45, 25.66 and 25.57%, compared to no-fungal treatment, respectively. At initial electrical conductivity (1.47dS/m), shoot dry weight increased by 9% in inoculated plants compared to the non-inoculated treatment. Inoculation with S. indica reduced the concentration of root sodium at salinity levels of 10, 20 and 30 dS/m by 30.49, 66.78 and 43.55%, respectively, compared to the non-inoculated treatment. In the aerial part, the fungus could reduce the sodium concentration at 10, 20 and 30 dS/m by 20.96, 13.28 and 10.24%, respectively, compared to the treatment without the fungus. Based on the results, inoculation with the fungus significantly increased the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in shoots at 20 and 30 dS/m.

Water defficency stress is one of the most important abiotic stresses that can affect plant growth and development. Salvia is also one of the important medicinal plants that has several medicinal properties. In the present study, the effects of different levels of water deficincy including 25, 50, 75 and 100% of soil field capacity on photosynthetic parameters in two sensitive and resistant species of salvia were investigated by JIP-test method. The results of this study showed that with increasing water defficency stress the number of active reaction centers (RC / CS), the amount of electron transfer in the photosynthetic system (ETo / CS), the efficiency of light reactions in photosystem II (φPo / (-1 φPo)) , Efficiency of biochemical reactions in electron transfer chain (ψo / (1- ψo)), efficiency of electron delivery to photosystem I (δRo / (1- δRo)) and performance index of electron transfer from the beginning of photosystem II to the end of I (PI total) has been reduced and the amount of energy loss in antenna chlorophylls (DIo / CS) has increased. The results of this study also showed that the negative effects of water defficency stress on these parameters in the susceptible species of Salvia (Salvia officinallis) were more than the resistant species (Salvia virgata).

With the increase of population, migration to cities and expansion of urbanization, improvement of living standards, and expansion of industries have caused a large volume of sewage to be produced in limited areas that the environment can not be refined. However, this high volume of wastewater can be considered a source of water, materials, and energy. Today, many countries make optimal use of water resources and advance their national development programs by recycling them. The use of wastewater in agriculture should not be based on a general rule. Still, it should be based on water, soil, and environment characteristics and establish a proportion between the quality of the wastewater and the type of wastewater application according to economic issues. This subject requires access to executable standards, instructions, and criteria for each of the different sections to be used to observe environmental standards. Of course, wastewater as a stable water source in irrigation of agricultural products and obedience to ecological considerations should be considered part of sound management for the water crisis.

A factorial experiment was conducted in a complete randomized design with 15 treatments and four replications in the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. For this experiment, 60 pots, 6 kg containing sandy loam soil were used. Treatments include urban water (W), treated wastewater (TWS), untreated wastewater (WS), combined urban water and treated wastewater ratio of 50:50 (W + TWS), and combined urban water and untreated wastewater (W + WS) (50:50) as irrigation water and three levels of irrigation were 100, 70 and 40% of the plant's water requirement. First, treated wastewater samples, untreated wastewater, and urban water were taken to the laboratory for water quality analysis. The seedlings were transferred to the desired pots in the three or four-leaf stage. After 150 days, the plants were harvested from the pools, and traits such as leaf number, leaf area, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and proline were measured.

According to the analysis of variance tables, the results show that the simple effect of water quality treatment on the leaf number, leaf area, chlorophyll a and b at the level of one percent probability have a significant difference, but there was no significant difference in proline and carotenoid traits. In simple effect of deficit irrigation treatment, all measured characteristics have a considerable difference at the level of one percent probability. But, in the interaction effect of water quality and deficit irrigation, leaf number, leaf area, chlorophyll a and b, and carotenoids trait were significant at the level of one percent probability, and proline trait was not significantly different. Therefore, due to the interaction of water quality and deficit irrigation treatments, the most leaf number related to the treatment of 100% of the plant's water requirement with untreated wastewater, and the least leaf number belongs to the treatment of 40% of the plant's water requirement with urban water. In the leaf area, the most amount is related to 100% of the plant's water requirement with untreated wastewater. The least amount is related to 40% of the plant's water requirement with urban water. In chlorophyll-a trait, the most amount of chlorophyll a is associated with the treatment of 100% of the plant's water requirement with untreated wastewater. The least amount of chlorophyll is associated with 100% of the plant's water requirement with treated wastewater. In chlorophyll b, the most amount is related to the interaction treatment of 100% of the plant's water requirement, and the combination of urban water and untreated wastewater in the ratio of 50:50 and the least number is related to the treatment of 100% of the plant's water requirement with treated wastewater. Also, in the carotenoid trait, most carotenoids were related to 100% of the plant's water requirement with untreated sewage. The least amount of carotenoid was linked to 40% of the plant's water requirement with untreated wastewater.

According to the results, it can be concluded that the leaf number, leaf area, chlorophyll a, and chlorophyll b in the treatment of urban water with untreated wastewater was more than the control, and the quality of irrigation water on proline was not significantly different. Also, it is concluded that the plant's natural response to drought stress depends on the amount of water and can be short-term or long-term physiological responses. Thus, the lack of access of tomato plants to enough water reduces physiological traits such as leaf number, leaf area, and photochemical traits such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids. But deficit irrigation increases the amount of proline, and with the drought stress intensifies, the number of proline increases. Thus, in conditions of deficit irrigation, the plant reduces its osmotic potential to absorb more water by accumulating potential osmotic regulators such as proline and soluble carbohydrates in the leaf.

In this study, the effect of water stress and nitrogen on quantitative parameters of Carla was investigated. The experiment was performed in greenhouse in a factorial manner and in a completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments included three irrigation water treatments and three levels of nitrogen fertilizer (100, 125 and 200 kg/ha, N1, N2 and N, respectively). Levels of water stress during the growing season and the weight of the pot and soil water shortage to field capacity in irrigation water by adding the amount was applied to them. Harvesting was done once a week. In each harvest, the parameters of number, weight, diameter and length of fruit and the amount of chlorophyll a and b in each pot were carefully measured. Also, yield and water use efficiency were calculated at the end of the growing season in each treatment. The results showed that the effects of irrigation water and nitrogen levels at the level of one and five percent probability on the measured parameters were significant. With decreasing irrigation water, the amount of quantitative parameters and plant yield decreased. The highest value of parameters was obtained from 100% irrigation water treatment, which was not significant in this regard with 75% irrigation water treatment. Under full irrigation conditions, the use of 100% nitrogen fertilizer increased yield and greenery indices. The highest yield was obtained in N3 treatment (full nitrogen consumption) of 15.4 tons per hectare and the highest water productivity was obtained from N3 treatment (2.12 kg / m3). Also, the interaction of nitrogen fertilizer and water stress showed that in severe water stress levels, full use of nitrogen fertilizer (N3 treatment) reduced the yield of Carla plant. Therefore, in severe water stress levels (50% irrigation water treatment), the amount of nitrogen consumption should be reduced to 75%.

In order to evaluate the effect of the duration of water in the magnetic field on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of radish plant, a research was conducted in the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, in a completely randomized design with three treatments and three replications. Treatments included distilled water (control), distilled water magnetized with a duration of 30 minutes, and distilled water magnetized in one hour with a field intensity of 0.6 Tesla. The results showed that magnetized water with duration of one hour caused an increase of 29%, 46%, 46%, 43%, 19%, and 82% in leaf area, tuber circumference, chlorophyll a, and carotenoid, fresh weight of shoot and dry weight of the tuber, respectively. Also, this treatment increased tuber mass and fresh weight by about 100%. In general, the treatment of the magnetized water with the duration of one hour was the best treatment. According to the results, the duration of irrigation water magnetization in the magnetic field can affect radish plant characteristics.

The grass is one of the plants that is used widely in the landscape of industrial centers. This plant has a high water requirement. So, because of low precipitations in recent years, from some medicinal plants are applied in landscape. Because, these plants not only resist to adverse environmental conditions, but also have low water requirement, nutrition and low maintenance cost in comparison to grass. However, in each region their adaptation and yield depends on various factors such as climatic conditions, physical and chemical conditions of the soil, water quality, irrigation intervals and type of plant. For this reason, the present study was designed to evaluate the compatibility of Salvia sahendica plant to water stress and determining the appropriate irrigation regime to apply as landscapes in industrial centers.

This experiment was conducted at the research farm of Isfahan Mobarakeh Steel Company. After field preparation, the research treatments including five irrigation interval (2 (control), 4, 8, 12 and 16 days) as the main factor and two plant including grass and Salvia sahendica as subsidary factors was carried out in a Split plot design with randomized complete block design with 2 × 2 meters plotted in 3 replications in 1395. After the establishment of plants, the water stress was applied by irrigation intervals. At the end of the summer, the plants (leaf, root and whole plant) were harvested and plant growth factors were measured in three replications. The means comparison conducted by LSD method using MSTAT-C software.

The results of analysis of variance showed that the effects of irrigation interval, species and their interaction were statistically significant at 1% on all morphological and physiological traits. Based on the results of the means comparison, by increasing the irrigation interval from 2 to 4, 8 and 16 days, a significant reduction in the studied traits were observed in the grass (pr<0.05). while, the lowest percentage of viability (5%), surface coverage (5%), visual scoring (10%), leaf area index (4%), relative water content of leaves (9%) and chlorophyll index (3%) was observed in the 16-day interval as compared with control plant, but the reduction of these traits in the Salvia sahendica was not significant to 16 days (pr>0.05). In this plant, the lowest records of named traits were (60%), (67%), (66%), (80%), (68%) and (59%) respectively in 16 days interval. In the grass, proline content, electrolyte leakage, the ratio of root to shoot dry weight and the root highest length were significantly increased by increasing irrigation intervals to more than 2 days (pr <0.05). These traits increased 4.7, 4.2, 2.3 and 2.6 times respectively in the 16-days irrigation interval in this plant. In Salvia sahendica, this parameters was not afftected to 16-days interval. In 16-days interval, these traits increased by 1.2, 2, 1.7 and 1.9 times respectively.

By considering that non-significant decreases were observed (pr>0.05) in the studied parameters of Salvia sahendica up to 12-days interval in comparison with control, it can be concluded that an optimal irrigation regime of this plant in order to use in the landscape is irrigation interval of 12-days. It saves water resources in comparison with grass. According to results, the use of Salvia sahendica is recommended for use as landscape and alternative of grass in the studied area and in other similar areas at confidence level of 95%.

Pseudomonas species are usually considered as plant growth promoting bacteria which in combination with nitrogen fertilizers could exert beneficial effects on growth and nutrients uptake by plants. It seems that by using these bacteria and nitrogen fertilizer we will be able to improve growth and nutrient uptake by spinach plant as a important vegetative in human diet. To achieve this purpose, in a factorial experiment on the basis of randomized complete blocks design with three replications, spinach plant (Spinacia oleracea L.) were inoculated with Pseudomons fluorescens or P.putida or left un-inoculated as control. Three levels of nitrogen (0, 125 and 250 mg N Kg-1) as urea were applied to the pots containing 2 kg of sterile soil. Statistical analysis showed that with increasing levels of nitrogen in soil from 0 to 250 mg kg-1, Zn uptake, leaf chlorophyll index and plant dry weight were significantly increased. By bacterial inoculation, shoot and root dry weights of spinach showed significant increase compared to the non bacterial control and shoot and root dry weights were enhanced by 20% and 28.1% in plants inoculated with P.fluorescens compared to the non-bacterial control. Leaf chlorophyll index was increased by 22.2% and 13.8% in P.putida and P.fluorescens treated plants, respectively compared to the control. Total N content in root and shoot of spinach was significantly increased in bacterial treatments specially in P.fluorescens treated plants compared to the non-bacterial control. Zn content in shoot was significantly decreased in plant inoculated with P. putida compared to the non-bacterial control. Based on the result obtained in this study, P.fluorescens caused a marked increase in growth and N uptake by development of plant root system and increasing water and nutrients uptake efficiency. Moreover, it led to improved Zn uptake in spinach plant through siderophore production.

Soil and water salinity is considered an important limiting factor for growth in many parts of the world especially in arid and semi-arid areas. Plant growth is restricted by salt stress like many other abiotic stresses. According to the relative tolerance of pistachio plant to salinity and large areas of saline soils in the country, it seems that pistachio is a suitable plant for cultivation in these areas. Since the production and activity of plant hormones such as cytokinins is influenced by environmental stresses and nutrient elements and considerig the soil salinity of pistachio orchards in kerman province and the important role of nitrogen in the production and exportation of cytokinin from roots to shoots this research for the first time investigates the role of benzyl adenine hormone (cytokinin) and nitrogen under salt stress on physiological parameters and osmotic regulators of pistachio seedlings (Pistachia vera L.).
In order to evaluate the effect of different levels of nitrogen and benzyl adenine on some physiological and osmotic regulators parameters of pistachio seedlings, cv. Badami Zarand in saline conditions (sodium chloride), a factorial experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design with three replications in the greenhouse. Treatments were consisted of salinity (0 and 2000 mg NaCl per kg soil), nitrogen (0 and 100 mg N kg-1 soil as NH4No3), and benzyl adenine hormone (0, 250 and 500 mg l-1).
The results showed that application of 500 mg per liter benzyl adenine under salt stress increased dry weight of plant more than 2 folds compared to control. Also, with increasing salinity, the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll was decreased. However application of nitrogen and benzyl adenine together, increased these parameters by 77, 72 and 52 percent, respectively. Also, carotenoids are affected by the treatments were increased by 78 percent. Although salinity reduced chlorophyll fluorescence index 31 percent, the application of nitrogen and 500 mg per liter benzyl adenine together could improve somewhat the effects of salinity and increased this photosynthetic parameter by 43 percent. Also, the results showed that proline and soluble sugars contents (osmotic regulators) increased with application of nitrogen and benzyl adenine (500 mg per liter), but combined application of these treatments increased osmotic regulators content by 78 and 59 percent compared to control, respectively.
The ratio of K/Na and Ca/Na were also significantly reduced with increasing salinity, but application of 500 mg per liter benzyl adenine increased these parameters by 100 and 40 percent, respectively.
According to the results, it is concluded that the nitrogen and benzyl adenine with improving of physiological and osmotic regulators parameters, increased the ability of pistachio seedlings to resistance to salinity stress and thus recommended to performe this test on maturity pistachio trees and if increase the quality and quantity of product to be recommended to farmers.

Responses of Olive self-rooted cuttings to irrigation water salinity and soil compaction in moisture of 0.9 saturation were studied. A loamy sand soil passed through a 4.75mm sieve, poured into PVC cylinders and compacted to achieve the desired compaction levels (bulk density of 1.3, 1.5 and 1.7 g cm-3). Then rooted olive cuttings were transplanted into the cylinders and were irrigated by waters with different salinities of 2, 5, 8 and 12 dS m-1 for five months. Instantaneous water use efficiency, electrolyte leakage, SPAD index and number of leaves to salinity of 8, and parameters of photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, temperature difference between leaf and environment to salinity of 5 dS m-1 had no statistically meaningfull differences. Soil hypoxia decreases salinity tolerance mechanisms. With respect to olive plant growth, the bulk density of 1.3 g cm-3 was determined the optimum level of soil compaction for a loamy sand soil.

Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is one of the most important horticultural products and of particular economic importance. Most of pistachio orchards are irrigated with saline and low quality water which reduced production in recent years especially in the gardens of Kerman pistachio in recent years. Salinity stress is one of the important factors reducing the land ability in agricultural production and impairing the plant physiological processes and reduced growth and yield eventually. Although research on the effect of natural zeolite on some on some plant characteristics, but information about the effect of enriched zeolite as a slow release fertilizer or soil conditioner on pistachio plant under saline conditions, there are no resources. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of calcium enriched zeolite on some physiological characteristics of pistachio seedlings under salinity stress.
In order to investigate the response of pistachio seedlings to salinity and zeolite levels, a factorial experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design in perlite medium with three replications in the greenhouse of agriculture college, Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsangan. Treatments consisted of three levels of zeolite enriched by calcium (0, 10 and 20 % W) and four levels of NaCl (0, 75, 150 and 225 mM). 5 germinated seeds were planted in each pot at a depth of 3 cm. Hoagland solution was used for pots irrigation. Pots leaching was carried out with distilled water in the ninth week after planting and according to plan, treatments of sodium chloride (0, 75, 150 and 225 mM) was prepared as a solution added to pots in two phases and once a week. fluorescence Chlorophyll index (Fv/Fm) at 3 times (weeks twelfth, nineteenth and twenty-fourth after planting), concentration of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, proline and protein were measured.
The results showed that, with increasing salinity the concentration of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll decreased significantly. Application of 10 % W zeolite increased chlorophyll b by 68 percent. Salinity also decreased the fluorescence chlorophyll index and protein, so that with increasing salinity to 225 mM, fluorescence Chlorophyll index by 8 percent and protein by 37 percent decreased compared to control. Salinity increased leaf proline. Application of zeolite enriched by calcium increased mentioned parameters, so that with increasing 10 % W zeolite enriched by calcium to medium, the concentration of proline and protein, increased by 100 and 19.5 percent respectively.
In total it is concluded that the calcium-enriched zeolite (10 % W), increased the ability of pistachio seedlings in resistance to salinity stress.

Water shortage is the most important factor affecting crop production in the world. The deficit irrigation is a way to reduce water consumption in farming. The Partial Root- zone Drying (PRD) irrigation is a new improvement in deficit irrigation in which the half of the root zone is irrigated alternatively in scheduled irrigation events. In the fixed partial root zone drying (FPRD) the irrigation is fixed to one side of the root zone in the growing season. Maize is a drought sensitive crop. In maize, secondary traits related to drought resistance are considered in producing tolerate cultivars.
An experiment was conducted in order to investigate the effects of regulated deficit irrigation, variable partial root zone drying (PRD) and fixed partial root zone drying (FPRD) on the yield, physiological and photosynthetic parameters of forage maize (KSC 704) during the growing seasons of 2014 in Mashhad region. A factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with four replications was carried out. The treatments included the full irrigation (FI) and the deficit irrigations (regulated deficit irrigation (DI) and the replacements of 80 % (DI80) and 60 % (DI60) of total water requirement, fixed PRD (FPRD) at 100% (FPRD100), 80% (FPRD80) and 60%(FPRD60) of water requirement, and variable PRD at 100% (PRD100), 80% (PRD80) and 60% (PRD60) of water requirement). Drip irrigation tapes were placed between plant rows. In the full irrigation and regulated deficit irrigation treatments, the plants were irrigated from two sides for every irrigation. In the PRD, one of two neighboring tapes was alternatively used for irrigation. In FPRD, a drip tape was used for two plant rows and irrigation was fixed to one side of the root. The irrigation interval was 3 days for all treatments. Dry and fresh forage yield, leaf area index (LAI), stomatal conductance, leaf relative water content (RWC) and chlorophyll content were measured.
All the measured traits were affected by the deficit irrigation. The highest fresh forage yield (72099 kg/ha) was produced by the full irrigation treatment. The statistical comparison showed that there was no significant difference between regulated deficit irrigation and PRD method for the fresh forage yield. But the FPRD treatment reduced the fresh forage yield. There was no significant difference between the fresh forage yield of FI and PRD80 treatments. The dry forage yield was affected by the different irrigation methods, irrigation levels and the interaction effects of the treatments All the measured traits were affected by the deficit irrigation. The highest fresh forage yield (72099 kg/ha) was produced by the full irrigation treatment. The statistical comparison showed that there was no significant difference between regulated deficit irrigation and PRD method for the fresh forage yield. But the FPRD treatment reduced the fresh forage yield. There was no significant difference between the fresh forage yield of FI and PRD80 treatments. The dry forage yield was affected by the different irrigation methods, irrigation levels and the interaction effects of the treatments (p According to the results, it seems that the negative effects of water stress on physiological and photosynthetic parameters in the early growing season is not significant and increases with the aging of the plants. Water stress decreases the absorption of carbon dioxide and the photosynthesis by reduction in the stomatal conductance. As well as, reducing the leaf area decreased photosynthetic area and the production of asymylats in the water stress conditions and ultimately reduced the forage yield significantly. The PRD method increased irrigation water productivity. With respect to this fact that no difference between the dry matter yield, LAI, chlorophyll content and RWC in the FI, PRD100 and PRD80 treatments was observed, it seems that applying Partial Root- zone Drying (PRD) method will result in lower water consumption during forage maize production at Mashhad environmental conditions.

In order to investigate the effect of different levels of salinity on physiological traits in fenugreek, an experiment was conducted at the greenhouse of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, using Completely Randomized Design with 10 replications. Treatments included irrigation water salinities of 0, 60, 120, and180 mM sodium chloride. The results showed that different levels of salinity had negative effects on physiological characteristics at 60, 120, and 180 mM sodium chloride and reduced shoot biomass by 37%, 50%, and 53% ; fruit biomass by 8%, 34%, and 45%; and 16% of chlorophyll index and 0, 4%, and 27% chlorophyll a/b, respectively, compared with 0 mM sodium chloride.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) trees are mainly cultivated in the Mediterranean area and are grown for their oil or processed as table olives. Despite the fact that olive is known to be resistant to drought conditions due to its anatomical, physiological, and biochemical adaptations to drought stress, reports indicate that the olive can be adversely affected by drought stress, which has a negative effect on the growth of olive trees. In the absence of adequate supplies of water, the demand for water can be met by using improved irrigation methods or by using reclaimed water (RW). Reports have shown that recycled water has been used successfully for irrigating olive orchards with no negative effects on plant growth.Attention has been paid to reclaimed water as one of the most significant available water resources used in agriculture around large cities in arid and semi-arid regions. On the other hand, irrigation efficiency is low and does not meet the demands of farmers.In order to investigate the possibility of irrigating olive orchards with subsurface leakage irrigation (SLI) in application of reclaimed water, an experiment was carried out with the aim of investigating the effect of reclaimed water on photosynthetic indices and morphological properties of olive fruit. Research was conducted using a split-plot experimental design with two factors (irrigation system and water quality) on the campus of Isfahan University of Technology in Isfahan, Iran, on a sandy-clay soil with a pH of 7.5 and electrical conductivity (EC) of 2.48 dSm-1.PVC leaky tubes were used for the SLI system. The SLI system was installed 40 cm from the crown of each tree at a depth of 30 - 40 cm.At the end of the experiment fruit yield, weight per fruit, volume, length and firmness were calculated. A portable gas exchange system (Li-6400., LICOR, Lincoln, NE, USA) was used to measure the net rate photosynthesis (A), the internal partial pressure CO2 (Ci), and stomatal conductance (gs) between (09.30 – 11.30 h) on a fully expanded current season leaves situated at mid canopy height. Statistical assessments of differences between mean values were performed by the LSD test at P = 0.05. Results and Discussion The results revealed that reclaimed water enhanced fruit yield, weight (15%), volume (23%) and leaf photosynthesis (22%) in plants compared with clear water. Recycled water was found to supply more nutrients than clear water. High nutrient concentrations in RW, compared to those in clear water, result in nutrient accumulation in the soil, making them available to plant roots to promote overall plant growth and fruit production. Improved N, P, K nutrition of wastewater-irrigated plants has been reported (Farooq et al, 2006). Olive leaves and stems represent storage organs for N and release it in response to the metabolic demands of developing reproductive and vegetative organs (Fernandez-Escobar et al., 2004). However, Al-Abasi et al. (2009) found no statistical differences. Irrigation with SLI systems increased the photosynthesis (33%), and stomatal conductance (57%) when compared with surface irrigation systems. The results showed that reclaimed water had a significant effect on photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. However, fruit length and firmness had no significant difference. Substomatal CO2 decreased when the SI systems were used for irrigation. Also SLI system could enhance fruit yield (65%), weight (17%), photosynthesis (32%) and chlorophyll Fluorescence (Fv/Fm) (18%). The SLI systems with recycled water induced greater shoot growth, total leaf surface area, and transpiration during the entire growing period. This led to an overall positive effect on mean fruit weight and total fruit production per tree. The SLI system applying RW led to more photosynthesis by 34% as compared to the SI system. In the present study, the SLI system delivered water directly in the root zone and improved water availability, which enhanced photosynthetic assimilation rates and plant growth to a great extent. David et al. (2003) showed that subsurface drip irrigation versus other irrigation methods reduced evaporation and improved growth and production in peach trees. As a conclusion, the results from this research show that recycled water could be a promising resource for irrigation of olive trees and acted as a source of nutrients and irrigation water.In addition, SLI irrigation system is more efficient in irrigation of olive trees when compared to surface irrigation system and proved beneficial for olive growth.

Non-destructive approaches that can rapidly estimate the nitrogen (N) status of plant could be useful in N fertilizer management practices. This study was conducted to assess leaf N concentration and grain protein content of three varieties of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.، cv. Zarin، Alvand، Durum) using portable non-destructive Minolta SPAD-502 chlorophyll meter. Measurements were made on the midpoint of the last fully developed leaf at Zadoks growth stages GS 31 and GS 41 collected from an irrigated wheat N response trial in a factorial randomized complete block design with three varieties and six N treatments in three seasons (2008-2010). The chlorophyll meter distinguished grain yield differences between N fertilizer treatments at both growth stages GS 31 and GS 41. Significant differences in chlorophyll meter readings were found between winter wheat cultivars. Chlorophyll meter SPAD-502 readings gave a poor prediction of grain yield (R2، 0. 01-0. 06)، but it predicted successfully the nitrogen status of total leaf N content (0. 63**>R2>0. 88**). Significant regression equations were established between grain protein content and SPAD value for all varieties studied in this experiment (0. 40**>R2>0. 79**). The best correlation between the SPAD meter readings with foliar N concentrations and grain protein contents were obtained at GS 41. The results indicate that SPAD meter can be a useful tool for nondestructively assessing foliar N status of winter wheat to make N recommendations and protein content in grain، but SPAD readings should be calibrated for wheat dominant varieties cultivated in west Azerbaijan regions.

Rootstocks are of primary importance to the citrus industry. Rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri L.) is one of major and widely used rootstocks in Citrus production. The experiment was a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement with three replications. The factors were mycorrhizal treatments at two levels (inoculation with Glomus mosseae and control) and irrigation treatments in 4 irrigation intervals (2, 4, 6 and 8 days). Water deficit decreased shoot and root dry weights and decreasing effect was more on the shoot. As water deficit levels increased, root colonization, leaf water potential and chlorophyll content decreased, but leaf temperature increased. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus increased root colonization, shoot and root dry weights, chlorophyll content and leaf water potential, while decreased leaf temperature in comparison with non mycorrhizal treatments.

A pot experiment was designed to investigate the effects of full, above and below ground interactions of wheat with wild oat on leaf characteristics and root to shoot ratio. This experiment was conducted as a factorial based on randomized complete design with four replications. The treatments included four interference levels (above ground, below ground, above and below ground and check wheat and wild oat) and four wild oat densities (2, 4, 6 and 8 plants/pot).The effects of full and root interference on wheat and wild oat traits was greater than shoot interference. For both species, full and below ground interaction significantly decreased the number of leaves, flag leaf area and chlorophyll content of flag leaf compared to above ground interaction and control. All traits of wild oat were reduced by above ground interaction compared to control. Number of leaves of wheat and wild oat showed greatest susceptibility to interaction treatments. There was no significant different between full and root interference. When wild oat density increased, the number of leaves, flag leaf area and chlorophyll content of flag leaf of wheat decreased. With strongest competition followed by enhanced wild oat density, root to shoot ratio in wheat and wild oat increased, which indicates more susceptibility of shoot than root to interference mean competition. This ratio for wild oat was more than wheat, thus, it is concluded that wild oat has higher rooting ability compared to wheat.