جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « پسته » در نشریات گروه « آب و خاک »

Spring frost is considered an important threat to agricultural products in high and middle latitudes. The damage caused by Late Spring Frosts (LSFs) significantly impacts vulnerable plant organs. This event has caused more economic losses to agriculture than any other climatic hazard in Asia, North America, and Europe. Also, these phenomena have contributed to low crop yields in Iran. The latest statistics released by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) show that Iran is one of the largest producers of agricultural products and the world’s second-biggest producer of pistachios. Kerman province is one of the significant areas of pistachio production. This province has a large share of the pistachio word area plantation. Spring frost damage to pistachio crops has led to low yields in recent years. A key aspect of studying frost is the ability to accurately estimate its occurrence. In this study, artificial neural network methods have been used to estimate late spring frost in the pistachio crop of Kerman city.

In this study, the efficiency of this method was investigated in the estimation of minimum temperature. For this purpose, the daily data of the synoptic station of Kerman city were obtained from Iran Meteorological Organization from 2000 to 2020. Meteorological data including mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures, relative humidity, wind speed, saturated vapor pressure, and sunshine hours were used. Five different combinations of these variables was considered as input variables in artificial neural network method for minimum temperatures modeling. After entering data into network and modeling with each combination, RMSE and R2 values were calculated. Finally, the combination of 8 variables including average and maximum temperature, the minimum temperature the previous day and two days prior, relative humidity, wind speed, saturated vapor pressure, and sunny hours were selected as the most suitable combination of variables. Subsequently, a simulation of minimum temperature values was conducted using 10% of the data. The performance of the methods was evaluated using statistical indices of coefficient of determination (R2), mean square of error (RMSE), Mean Bias Error (MBE), and Coefficient of Nash–Sutcliffe (NSE).

The accuracy of an analytical method is the degree of agreement between the test results generated by the method and the true value. Upon examining the models, the M1 model was identified as the best due to its lowest RMSE and higher R². ANN model results were evaluated using various performance measure indicators. The simulated outcome of the model indicated a strong association with actual data, where the correlation coefficient was above 0.95, and the MBE index was zero. Also, the RMSE value was positive and close to zero, and the NSE value was above 0.75. Therefore artificial neural network method had high accuracy. In this study, mean annual minimum temperature was estimated using artificial neural network models (from March 10 to May 20). Comparison between the observed and calculated data showed that these data were in good agreement. Also, the results showed that temperature fluctuations were high between March 10 and March 31. From 2011 to 2017, an almost uniform temperature trend has been observed between March 10 and March 31. However, the years 2000, 2006, and 2020 showed a noticeable decrease in temperature. From 2018 to 2020, this trend of temperature reduction continued. In April, the temperature values were between 7 and 10 degrees Celsius. The years 2001, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2016, and 2019 had a noticeable decrease in temperature. In May, the mean minimum temperature was between 10 and 14 degrees Celsius. Therefore, the probability of frost occurrence in early-flowering cultivars was higher in late March than in April and May. The years 2000, 2004, 2005, 2012, 2015, 2019 and 2020 had the highest number of frost days in the last two decades.

The results showed that the artificial neural network method had a high performance in estimating the minimum temperature. The values of the statistical indicators were R2=0.963, RMSE=0.027oC, MBE= 0 and NSE=0.966 respectively. In addition, the ANN method performed well in estimating the number of critical frost days for pistachio crops. The results showed that, although reducing the amount of input data in models decreases their output precision, data-driven methods can still be useful tools for minimum temperature estimation.

The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of surface, bubbler and drip irrigation methods on salinity distribution around pistachio trees under gardener management in a soil with sandy clay loam texture. For this purpose, an experiment in the form of split split plots with three treatments of irrigation methods in the main plot, the distance from the row of trees at four levels (0.5, 1, 2 and 3.5 meters) in the sub-plot and the depth of soil at four levels (0 to 30, 30 to 60, 60 to 90 and 90 to 120 cm) in the sub-sub plot in three replications was done. Then applied water and soil salinity during two crop years were measured. According to the results, the amount of applied water in border, drip and bubbler irrigation was 8150, 5060 and 6390 m3c/ha, respectively. The effect of irrigation methods and distances from trees on soil salinity was significant at 1% level and showed that drip irrigation is superior to other methods. Salt distribution at different distances from the trees row also showed a significant difference. Solutes accumulation under drip irrigation has started in surface layer at the edge of the wet environment and at a distance of 70 to 80 cm from the row of trees. Accordingly, the drip irrigation is one of the suitable irrigation methods for pistachio gardens, under properly designed, implemented and operated and soil sustainability consideration, and it is a suitable alternative to the conventional surface irrigation. In drip irrigation, the amount of irrigation water was 38% less than the surface irrigation. It is obvious that in the areas where the irrigation water is not a good quality and the effective annual rainfall unable to leaching the soil, the soil should be leaching annually using the surface irrigation method.

Water and soil are the main factors for agricultural production.. Due to the limitation of suitable land and good quality (fresh) water, it is very important to plant plants that can tolerate unfavorable water and soil conditions and have an economic crop. The pistachio tree is a plant that has relatively good resistance to salinity and lack of water, so its planting in lands where planting other garden and agricultural crops is not cost-effective has gradually become common, and thus, its cultivated area has increased in recent years. In this research, using the capability of geographic information system, the areas prone to pistachio cultivation in Ayask city were evaluated. For this purpose, the basic information of water (salinity, water absorbable sodium), soil (salinity, soil absorbable sodium and soil pH), topography (slope and elevation classes) and meteorology (average temperature, minimum temperature, maximum temperature, pollen temperature, (relative humidity and rain) of the area were collected and interpolated using the kriging method in the geographic information system; Then, based on the relationship between each of the environmental and climatic parameters of the city and the ecological needs of pistachio, the resulting maps were classified according to the possibility of pistachio cultivation. Using the hierarchical method, assigning value and combining the resulting maps in the GIS environment, the results showed that 44% of land is suitable, 47% is average land, and 9% is unsuitable for pistachio cultivation.

Of major constraints for crop production in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran are the lack of water resources and drought, and due to uncontrolled groundwater abstraction, the quality of agricultural water is declining gradually. Water pricing is one of the tools for water resources planning and water demand management. In this regard, the present study aims to determine the economic value of water in agriculture with respect to its different qualities in conditions of uncertainty in Rafsanjan and Anar provinces. Using interval mathematical programming, the shadow price range for different qualities of water was obtained. The price elasticity of demand was estimated in order to evaluate the effectiveness of pricing, the standard water demand function and to use it more efficiently. The findings show that the shadow price of water varies within different groups, and fresh water, moderately saline water and highly saline water were of the highest economic value, respectively. Comparing the efficiency of the plan in the current and equilibrium modes reveals that although water consumption has decreased by 50%, but the efficiency of activity has decreased by only 13.44%, and this implies that the amount of water consumption can be reduced in the virtue of redistributing water in pistachio orchards with minimal reduction in activity efficiency. This is feasible via eliminating low yield and profit, yet preserving higher yield pistachio orchards, may lead to reducing water consumption and extraction, and it also ensures high economic benefits for farmers.

Today, in most pistachio farming areas, the reduction in the quantity and quality of irrigation water, followed by the reduction in the absorption of nutrients by the roots, has reduced the amount of pistachio fruit and its quality. The use of organic materials in sustainable agriculture, such as humic acid, causes the physical modification of the soil, including the increase of pores and water retention capacity and the reduction of evaporation from the soil surface. These substances increase the absorption of nutrients through the improvement of root growth and the formation of chelates of elements, and with the properties of stimulating growth, regulating plant growth hormones and increasing the tolerance of plants against plant stresses, it ultimately increases plant growth and Finally increasing the economic performance of pistachios. This research was carried out in the form of a randomized complete block design with 5 treatments including zero (control), 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 kg per hectare of humic acid produced by Shimi Golfaiz Khorasan Company in three replicates and for two years of cultivation on fertile trees of 35-year-old Kale Ghochi trees. Each plot included 5 trees and a total of 75 trees were tested. Based on the soil test, the lack of nutrients was determined and the required amount of chemical fertilizers (the same amount for all treatments) was used in a mixture with humic acid, and only chemical fertilizers were used in the control treatment. The results of analysis of variance and comparison of treatment averages based on composite analysis of two-year data indicated that the difference between treatments was statistically significant for most of the assessed traits. The fresh and dry weight of the tree showed an increase of 39% and 38%, respectively, in the treatment of 1500 kilos of humic acid compared to the control. The treatment of 500 kg/ha of humic acid had the lowest amount of blank (25% reduction compared to the control) and the highest percentage of non-splitting (48% compared to the control). The treatment of 1000 kg/ha of humic acid caused the highest branch growth with 21% compared to the control. The 1500 kilo humic acid treatment had the highest amounts of calcium (23%), iron (25%), zinc (22%), and manganese (24%) compared to the control. According to the results obtained from this research, the treatment of 1500 kgha-1 of humic increased the fresh and dry yield and the concentration of calcium and micro nutrients elements of iron, zinc and manganese and is introduced as the best treatment. Of course, it should be kept in mind that regardless of the type and concentration of humic acid used, the method of application, the physical and chemical conditions of the soil, the management of the farm are also effective in the results obtained.

The most common method to supply phosphorus for plants is the use of phosphate chemical fertilizers that have low efficiency, high cost and harmful environmental effects. If the availability of phosphorus can be increased by using phosphorus-soluble bacteria and mycorrhiza, the phosphorus concentration and plant growth parameters may also increase and make a major change in the phosphorus nutrition of plants. The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of using superior strains of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria isolated from rhizosphere of pistachio trees, mycorrhiza and phosphate sources on the growth and phosphorus uptake of pistachio seedlings in greenhouse conditions. The experiment was performed as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications in 2019. Treatments included four sources of phosphorus (control, monocalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate, and soil phosphate), four levels of bacteria (control, Serratia odorifera, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas brassicacearum) and two levels of mycorrhiza (control and mycorrhiza (Funneliformis mosseae, Rhizophagus intradices, Rhizophagus irregularis and Glomus caledonium)). Analysis of variance of the data showed significant interactions between phosphorus-soluble bacteria, phosphate sources and mycorrhiza on pistachio growth indices. All three bacterial isolates had positive effects on increasing vegetative indices. Also, mycorrhiza inoculation along with bacterial inoculation showed a significant increase of 44% in root dry weight. The highest shoot to root ratio was observed with application of soil phosphate and tricalcium phosphate which increased by 19% and 37% compared to control respectively. Inoculation of pistachio seedlings by mycorrhiza increased root, stem and leaf P concentration by 90%, 104% and 122% respectively. Therefore, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria especially Pseudomonas SP and mycorrhizal fungi played an important role in increasing the efficiency of phosphorus fertilizers and reducing fertilizer use, increasing growth and phosphorus uptake of pistachio seedlings.

At the present study, the effectiveness of organic fertilizer produced from poultry wastes was evaluated on corn and pistachio plants. Treatments included: T1 (Control), T2 (Fertilizer recommendation based on soil test), T3 (Application 0.71 g kg-1 organic fertilizer from poultry slaughterhouse wast), T4 (Use of 1.06 g kg-1 of organic fertilizer from Poultry slaughterhouse waste), T5 (use of 0.07 g kg-1 N from urea + 0.53 g kg-1 slaughter wastes fertilizer, T6 (use of 0.035 g kg-1 urea + 0.8 g kg-1 slaughter wastes fertilizer), T7 (use of 1.33 g kg-1 vermicompost). The experiment was conducted as completely randomized design in four replications. The highest maize shoot dry weight belonged to T2 (fertilizer recommendation based on soil test) while the lowest one was related to T1 (control). In terms of total nitrogen content of maize, treatments T1 (0.35), T4 (0.41,) T5(0.41) and T7(0.40) have a significant difference with other treatments. While treatments T2 (0.66%), T3 (0.56%) and T6 (0.6%) were in a statistical group, control treatment (T1) and treatment T7 had the highest nitrogen concentration in pistachio leaves. Leaf Fe content in the different treatments was more than twice the optimum level (more than 200 mg kg-1), but Zn content in all treatments was severely low (less than 15 mg kg-1) and the plant was deficient in zinc. In terms of copper content, except the T5 and T6, the other treatments were optimal. Manganese content of all treatments was about 30% to 50% lower than optimum. In general, the results indicated that integrated plant nutrition (application of organic fertilizer along with chemical fertilizers) is a suitable solution to manage plant nutrition and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers.

Water resources scarcity is the biggest challenge for food production. In addition to the problem of water shortage, salinity stress is also an important limiting factor in agricultural systems that disrupts the growth and development of most plants. So, drought and salinity stresses are among the main environmental and biological stresses that reduce agricultural and horticultural productions all over the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. High evaporation, low rainfall, water scarcity, soil salinity and low quality of available water resources are the serious concerns in arid and semi-arid regions that threaten the sustainability of agriculture in these areas. It can be said with certainty that proper management of irrigation and drainage is the main key to protecting water and soil resources, maintaining their quality and continuing irrigated cultivation to meet the growing nutritional needs of the world. Due to the fact that native cultivars of plants in each region show better adaptation reactions in critical conditions, this experiment was performed to evaluate the tolerance of pistachio Badami rootstock as a native cultivar of Ardakan region to salinity and drought stresses.

In this research, in order to investigate the interaction effect of salinity and drought stresses on pistachio seedlings, a factorial experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design with three replications in greenhouse of Pistachio Research Station of Ardakan city located in Yazd province. The irrigation treatments were applied as 5 (I1), 10 (I2) and 15 (I3) days of irrigation interval. Four salinity levels of irrigation water included 0.5 (S1), 4 (S2), 7 (S3) and 10 (S4) dS/m. The amount of irrigation water was determined by weighing the pots before each irrigation and raising the pots soil water content to field capacity. Furthermore, 30% more water was applied as leaching fraction. Electrical conductivity of the drainage water was determined throughout the applying of stress treatment by taking the samples of the drainage water. At the end of the treatments period, in addition to the actual evapotranspiration of each treatment, morphological traits of seedlings including leaf area, shoot dry weight, plant height, stem diameter, root dry weight and main root length were measured. The main and interaction effects between water and salinity stress levels were separately evaluated, using SPSS software. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using Duncan’s method to determine statistically significant differences between the means (p ≤ 0.05).

Results showed that the main effect of the irrigation intervals and salinity levels of irrigation water were significant on all of the traits except seedlings height at one percent level. However, the interaction effects of irrigation interval and salinity were only significant on evapotranspiration, leaf area and root dry weight. The increasing irrigation water salinity from 0.5 to 10 dS/m, the average evapotranspiration decreased by 17% and increasing the irrigation interval from 5 to 15 days, the average evapotranspiration decreased by 49%. Increasing the irrigation interval caused a greater decrease in evapotranspiration than increasing the irrigation water salinity. Comparison of shoot and root dry weights at the lowest salinity level compared to the highest salinity level showed a decrease of 60 and 58%, respectively. Increasing the irrigation interval from 5 to 15 days also reduced the average dry shoot and root weights by 27 and 29%, respectively. By increasing irrigation interval from 5 to 15 days and increasing salinity from 0.5 to 10 dS/m, leaf area decreased by 46 and 79%, respectively. In general, based on the results, the effect of salinity on reducing the shoot and root morphological traits of pistachio was more than the effect of drought, the most important reason can be the toxicity of salinity ions, especially sodium and chlorine in disrupting the internal metabolism of pistachio especially photosynthesis process. The results of comparing the mean of traits such as dry weights of shoot and root and leaf area, showed that the best irrigation interval for pistachio in greenhouse condition was 10 days. The readily available water for 2-year-old pistachio seedlings for shoot dry matter production was also determined 41 percent. The salinity threshold of soil solution for reducing shoot and root dry weights for 2-year-old pistachio seedlings of Badami cultivar were obtained 8.8 and 7.0 dS/m, respectively. These threshold values indicate that the pistachio root growth begins to decrease at lower salinity. In other words, by increasing salinity, while continuing the process of water uptake by root, dry matter increases in the shoot section, it means, the pistachio shoot growth begins to decrease at higher salinity. The slope for decreasing shoot and root dry matter was 4 percent per unit increase in soil solution salinity. The results of this research can be used for water management in greenhouses and by farmers for growing pistachio seedlings of Badami cultivar.

One of the important indicators in determining water use efficiency for agricultural productions is the index of water consumption efficiency. This study was conducted to determine the water use efficiency of pistachio in Sirjan city located in the southwest of Kerman province in 2015. To compare bubbler and subsurface drip irrigation methods, 27 pistachio orchards with an area of ​​1373 hectares were selected to determine water use efficiency, of which four orchards were equipped with the bubbler system and the rest were equipped with subsurface system. Bubbler discharge, irrigation time, area of ​​each irrigation plot and crop yield were studied. By measuring the volume of irrigation water after irrigating the field and the amount of water wasted along the route, the average gross volume of applied irrigation water was calculated. After harvesting, the average yield of pistachio per hectare was calculated. The results of this study showed that the subsurface drip irrigation method compared to bubbler irrigation method, not only significantly increases water use efficiency but also increases crop yield by 34%. Therefore, according to the results and also the current water shortage conditions in Sirjan city, the use of subsurface drip irrigation method is more appropriate than bubbler irrigation to irrigate pistachio orchards.

Optimizing the use of water resources is inevitable due to water shortages in agricultural areas.  Pistachio gardening has been an attractive agricultural activity for several decades in Iran. Given the limited water resources, areas under pistachio cultivation in arid regions are not economical due to low production. There has been a continuous trend towards application of efficient irrigation systems such as pressurized subsurface drip irrigation methods, but their complexity and high initial investment, make them less suitable for small scale and scattered owners. This research describes the field performance of a very low-pressure subsurface irrigation method which has been introduced before (Dastorani et al., 2010). In this subsurface porous pipe irrigation system, water is delivered directly to the pistachio tree’s roots via perforated PVC pipes covered by plastic textile sleeves. The feasibility of this system has been demonstrated for irrigating pistachio orchards. They compared the effect of traditional (surface) irrigation and such subsurface irrigation method on crop yield and annual growth traits. Their results showed that subsurface irrigation method had relatively higher performance than the surface method. To accurately design such a system, it is necessary to assess the time variations of irrigation parameters including lateral infiltration q (leakage flow rate per unit length), local water pressure along laterals Px in terms of input water flow rate If , and pipe orifice density n, as it is the subject of this research.

In recent decades, climate variation during the pistachio growing have significantly reduced the quantity nd quslity of yield of this strategic crop of Iran. The purpose of this study is to determine the most important climatic factors affecting pistachio crop yield using C&R decision tree model in Rafsanjan region south of Iran. during the period of 1380-1399. Modeling was performed using climatic variables including wind speed, number of frost days,rainfall,total evaporation,mean relative humidity, sunshine hours, mean temperature, mean of Tmax and Tmin as input variables and pistachio yield as the target variable. Correlation coefficient, root mean square error, relative error and bias metrics were used to evaluate the model. The decision tree model was run separately for 6 months before and sfter harvest. The obtained correlation coefficients were of 0.88 and 0.86, respectively, which is acceptable for prediction of yield. The RMSE values for pre- and post-harvest periods were 521 and 558 Kg ha-1, respectively. According to the results of the decision tree, during the preharvest period, the most significant attributes were the relative humidity and the number of sunny hours, respectively and the for the second half of the year the wind speed, minimum temperature, rainfall and relative humidity were the most affecting variables, respectively.

Kerman province is currently suffering problems in water resources management and its freshwater storages are restricting continuously. A large number of wells are now salinized and lost their suitable quality in this province. Thus, a particular management is needed to use brackish water resources so as to achieve an acceptable level of agricultural production. In this study, the effect of irrigation by sodium and brackish water on soil and pistachio trees in Kerman county was investigated using I1 to I6 treatments. Six brackish water treatments in complete randomized blocks in three repetition were studied. Irrigated water was distributed uniformly in all treatments. The results showed that the use of gypsum in the treatments I3 and I6 leaded on better removal of harmful sodium ions than in the treatments I1, I2, I4 and I5 where soil was solely leached by irrigation water. Adding gypsum reduced the average of electrical conductivity, SAR and ESP of the soil by 39.35%, 47.4% and 41.3% respectively in comparison to before test conditions. Besides, using gypsum was resulted in improvement of yield performance by 11.9% and 15.6% for treatments I3 and I6 respectively and improvement of quality indicators such as increment of 1000 kernel weight, reduction in both blank pistachios percentage and non-split shells.

Proper plant nutrition is one of the most important factors in improvement of crop quality and quantity. Potassium is one of the essential macronutrients for plant growth. Understanding the different forms of potassium is important in evaluation the situation of this element in soil fertility and plant nutrition. Incorrect understanding of the potassium dynamics in soil off leads to improper management of soil fertility. Soil potassium exists in four forms: soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable and structural that their availability for plant are different. Soluble and exchangeable forms are widely used for determination of the potassium availability for plants. In addition to the exchangeable potassium, non-exchangeable potassium plays an important role in plant nutrition. This study was done to evaluate the different chemical forms of potassium and effect of pistachio seedlings planting on changes of their forms in some calcareous soils of Rafsanjan. For determination of the chemical forms of their forms potassium in 20 calcareous soils samples of Rafsanjan before and after planting, 1 M NH4OAc, boiling 1 M HNO3 anddistilled water were sample used. Results indicated that there was no significant difference between the soluble potassium before and after the planting. However, amount of exchangeable potassium increased from 239 mg kg-1 soilbefore planting to 270 mg kg-1 soilafter planting and non-exchangeable potassium decreased from 683 mg kg-1 soilbefore planting to 570 mg kg-1 soilafter planting. Multiple regression equations indicated that the different forms of potassium in soils were correlated with the physical and chemical properties of the soil such as clay content.

In recent years, the undesirable quality of irrigation water has a profound effect on the growth and production of pistachios. These studies were conducted to investigate the effect of important irrigation water qualitative parameters and classification of them on pistachio yield. For this purpose, 53 water sources were selected with a variety of quality in pistachio orchards. Sampling and complete analysis were done for each source water sample. For all the gardens, management questionnaires were prepared. Step-by-step multi-variable regression analysis shows that the EC, SAR and B of water, were more effective on pistachio yield, respectively. The correlation coefficient (R2) of the relationship between the yield and water salinity, SAR and B was about 0.82, 0.81 and 0.67 respectively. The qualitative characteristics of irrigation water quality were ranked in suitable classes (S1, S2, and S3) and unsuitable (N). Excessive threshold increases of these characteristics have a decreasing effect about 65% on yield of the studied orchards. The statistical analysis shows that the average of water salinity is 11 dS. m-1, SAR is about 20.1 and B is 6.9 mg.l-1. Due to the negative effects of irrigation water quality on pistachio yield, to achieve optimal use, special management practices is necessary, and a new classification for irrigation water based on the proposed table is recommended in pistachio orchids.

Two problems of increasing costs and environment effects have enhanced the important of nutrition temporal management and its effects on productivity. In typical agricultural activities, inputs such as chemical fertilizers, plant pesticides and water are used uniformly and without regard to their actual needs in farms and orchards. However, given the high emphasis on the quality and efficiency of food production, it is necessary to use inputs based on actual needs in terms of time and place.

In this study, at first, the scientific points of view were determined related to deficiency and toxicity symptums and time management of nutrition. Then, growers' attitude and behavior regarding temporal management of this input was evaluated. Comparing growers' knowledge with experts' idea, the pistachio producers' number related to temporal management of nutrition and was calculated. Using questionnaire method, data was collected. Pistachio producers of Anar and Rafsanjan cities in Kerman province were study population. Using stratified random sampling method, a sample of 100 farmers was selected. As, more than one orchard were considered for each grower, final sample size was 286. Also, for measuring the effects of socio economic factors on growers' knowledge and also the effects of growers' knowledge on pistachio yield, Pearson correlation, variance analysis and regression methods were used.

The results showed that average of farmers' knowledge regards to temporal management of nutrition and recognizing the symptums of deficiency and toxicity nutrients is low and is very different among pistachio producers. Among the three indicators of deficiency and toxicity of elements, the time of elements application during the year and based on the plant growth stage, farmer's knowledge about the application time of the elements during the year was the best and about plant growth index was the worst condition. Also, among the elements studied, nitrogen is the best, followed by phosphorus and potassium.The results, also, showed that research and extension activities have had the significant effect on increasing knowledge of input temporal management. Also, knowledge of nutrition temporal management has increased land productivity. In this regard, one number increasing in farmers' knowledge will enhance pistachio yields, 21.32 kilogram per hectare. In other words, a person who receives 20, his yield is 426 kilogram per hectare more than a person who receive zero.

The knowledge of farmers and the impact of this knowledge on productivity of fertilizer use can be increased with the quantitative and qualitative increase in education and extension, raising the quality level of human resources employed in agriculture, improving water and soil conservation guidelines and reforming the rules for paying subsidies.

Regarding the development trend of pistachio gardens in many provinces and the severe shortage of water resources in these areas, the supply of water requirement of pistachio is not feasible. In order to optimize management in water shortage conditions, it is necessary to evaluate the different levels of water supply during pistachio growth stages. The purpose of this study is determine the water supply status at different stages of pistachio growth using satellite images and SEBAL algorithm in Sirjan Plain. The actual evapotranspiration of pistachios was estimated using the SEBAL algorithm and Landsat 8 images. The result of this model was validated with Landsat 7 images. This model could calculate actual evapotranspiration of pistachio the same as other research with 20% error (0.6 mm/day). The results showed that supply of water in the third stage of growth (at the peak consumption) due to increased pistachio water requirement, insufficient water supply led to 30% deficit irrigation in Sirjan plain. In order to better irrigation management, production can be increased by reducing irrigation in the second stage and increasing irrigation in the third stage. The rate of deficit irrigation in the Sirjan Plain was 17% and it was in the tolerable threshold for the pistachio. The results show that the pistachio tree is resistant to deficit irrigation (up to 26%) in low salinity levels. In high water salinity (4000 μmho / cm), the effect of deficit irrigation and salinity is combined and pistachio production is rapidly reduced due to deficit irrigation.

Admittedly there exists surplus pistachio orchards. There are two points which make it difficult to address this problem. First, what amount of surplus pistachio orchards should be eliminated? Secondly, how can policy makers tackle the resisting of the farmers against the elimination of these surplus orchards? These two questions were answered by a review of past literature and questionnaire feedback from 1597 pistachio producers in Anar and Rafsanjan cities, Kerman province. The results showed that if flood irrigation system is used, 75000 hectares of pistachio orchards )75% of total pistachio orchards( in Anar and Rafsanjan cities are surplus and should be eliminated. Even using advanced irrigation methods, such as pressurised irrigation systems, and increasing the irrigation efficiency up to 90% cannot remove the need for elimination of surplus orchards. In such a system 52000 hectares of pistachio orchards still need to be eliminated. Based on the results, according to technical, ethical, economic, social, and environmental criteria, the elimination of pistachio surplus orchards in Kerman province is justifiable.

Salt accumulation in the soil profile is a challenge for irrigated agriculture and the study of salt concentration and its variation in the soil profile under different irrigation systems and management is needed. In this study, Sodium, magnesium, calcium and SAR concentration were studied under three irrigation regimes; farmer management (I1), Irrigation requirement (I2) and I2 plus leaching requirement (I3) in Safaeyeh in Kerman during two cultivation years (1391-1392). According to the results sodium, magnesium, and SAR deceased after irrigation but calcium did not affect by irrigation time. In development growth period, the highest values of SAR, sodium and magnesium were found to be corresponded to 75, 50 and 75 cm soil depth, respectively. The highest values of sodium and magnesium in I3 treatment were 123.4 and 43.6 meq/lit which were corresponded to the soil depth of 75cm. The highest value of calcium in I3 treatment was correspond to the soil depth of 25cm which was 52meq/lit. The highest value of SAR (12.4) was belong to the soil depth of 75 cm which indicates calcium has moved upward and toward the emitter. The interaction effect of irrigation regimes, soil depth, and recording time (before and after irrigation) showed that the highest concentrations of sodium, magnesium and SAR were 131.8, 74.4 and 54.3 meq/lit respectively, which were belong to I3 and 75 cm soil depth before irrigation. The highest amount of SAR was 12.8 which were belonging to I3 treatment, too. Calcium variations in the soil under I2 and I3 irrigation regimes shows the important of irrigation management for salinity control. The results showed that I2 have better performance than the other irrigation regimes due to less salt accumulation and SAR values in the root zone.

The main problem of salinity, in addition to reducing agricultural and horticulture products is the gradual decline of their cultivation area. Several factors such as climate and irrigation (precipitation, fraction of leaching), soil type and soil salinity, salinity of irrigation water, uniform distribution of the system and irrigation with saline water affects the soil salinity changes. Therefore, in irrigated agriculture, soil salinity should be reduced and controlled to an optimal level of the economic production. Leaching with proper irrigation management is one of the effective ways to reduce soil salinity. The study was conducted during 2012-2013 in as pistachio garden located in the Safaeieh region of Semnan province. The garden was 100 ha and 2 ha of that was selected for this study with 10 years old pistachio trees equipped to subsurface drip irrigation system. The treatments of this study were three irrigation regimes; control (I1), Irrigation based on irrigation requirement (I2) and I2 plus leaching requirement (I3), three soil depth of 25, 50, and 75 cm from soil surface and time before and after irrigation. The drip line laterals include emitters with 2.26 lph flow rate was buried in 40 cm soil depth. Soil samples to evaluation salt concentration were collected from 25, 50, and 75 soil depth before and after irrigation. To study the impact of different irrigation regimes, soil depth and time (before and after irrigation) and also their bilateral impact a factorial design in randomize block was applied. The results showed that ECe and SAR accumulation decreased after development, growth stage and continued to end growth stage. The results showed that I2 and I3 irrigation regimes were more effective in reducing the amount of sodium from the root zone and the I2 irrigation regime showed better performance in comparison to I3 irrigation regime. Regarding the amount of magnesium in the soil, the I2 irrigation regime was more successful than the I1 and I3 regimens. In I1 irrigation regime, the amount of magnesium at the end growth stage increased compared to the beginning growth stage. Significant decrease in ECe level at the end growth stage compared to the beginning growth stage belonged to the I2 irrigation regime, which suggests that I2 irrigation regime was more successful in ECe leaching during the period of pistachio growth, which attributed to the potential for leaching from the soil surface to the depths below the soil surface. The results showed that excessive water application under saline conditions for any reason, such as leaching not only does not have a beneficial effect on the removal of salts from the root zone, but also may lead to accumulation of salts and damage to the plant. The highest amount of calcium in the soil was recorded 98 days after the first irrigation under the I2 and I3 irrigation regimes which was 52.5 and 58.1 Meq/l, respectively. The lowest amount of this element The I1 and I2 regimens were 40.8 meq/l, respectively, which were recorded in 152 days after the first irrigation. In terms of SAR, the lowest value in the I2 regime was more noticeable than other irrigation regimes. The effects of soil depth of time after the first irrigation showed that there was no significant difference at the depth of 25 cm and 75 cm at the end growth stage compared with the valued recorded in beginning growth stage, but at a depth of 50 cm there was a significant reduction in ECe. The highest ECe value equaled to 14.5 dS/m was recorded at a depth of 75 cm in 98 days after first irrigation. In the I1 irrigation regime at all three depths of 25, 50 and in the I3 irrigation regime at a depth of 75 cm the amount of SAR at the end growth stage were not less than that in beginning growth stage, however, the reduction in SAR was recorded in the I2 irrigation regime at all three depths. Irrigation regime I2 was successful to control the SAR in different soil depth compared to the other two irrigation regimes, which is very important for the next irrigation season to moderate the harmful effects on blossoms. Moreover, it is suggested that in a field, equipped with a subsurface drip irrigation system, leaching water at the end of the season by surface irrigation or heavy subsurface drip irrigation during the rainfall to leach out the accumulated salt to lower soil layers.

Land suitability evaluation is technically explained as the assessment of land performance when used for a specified target, particularly to use them based on their capability and production potential. This study aimed to determine the suitability of lands for Pomegranate and Pistachio using PROMETHEE II techniques in an area located in the Miandoab region, Iran. Eleven soil series were found in the study area. To explain the land suitability, some criterions including soil texture, soil acidity, salinity, organic carbon, soil exchangeable sodium (%), soil carbonate calcium (%), the number of households, both male and female population, illiteracy and literacy education, main occupation and age were determined. Then the entropy-weight method, which is based on Shannon Entropy theory, was utilized. Results showed that exchangeable sodium was found with maximum weight while age and occupation had the minimal weight for the both crops. Next, weighted values of criteria were analyzed using the PROMETHEE II technique. The results showed that for both pomegranate and pistachio, Soil series of Su. Wt and Su were identified to have the highest potential for cultivation with proper phi 0. 417 and 0. 328 for pomegranate and 0. 438 and 0. 358 for pistachio, respectively, while Ch and Fa. Wt soil series were found as unsuitable series with proper phi -0. 258 and -0. 522 for pomegranate and -0. 326 and -0. 478 for pistachio, respectively. Also, about 20. 11% of the region had very good suitability, 23. 6% good, 36. 26% moderate and 20. 03% had poor suitability for pomegranate cultivation and 27. 23% of the region had very good, 23. 9% good, 38. 87% moderate and 10% had poor suitability for pistachio cultivation.