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One of the greatest biotic stress reducing potential yield in chickpea is Ascochyta blight caused by Ascochyta rabiei Pass. (Labr.) which is distributed worldwide. Due to its severity and to decreasing the environmental biological impact of chemical control, research on natural compounds like plant essential oils would be a helpful step in the disease management. In this study, the antifungal efficacy of essential oil of eight plants including thyme, savory, pennyroyal, mint, tarragon, fennel, cumin and ajwain at 5 concentrations in 3 replications under complete random design was evaluated. Characteristics like mycelial growth inhibition (MGI), inhibitory minimum concentration (IMC) and speed of colony growth after treatment were studied under laboratory condition. Pathogenicity index was studied under greenhouse condition by the selected plants through laboratory tests in comparison with the fungicide Rovral-TS and intact and infected controls. Result showed that at greenhouse, thyme and fennel showed the most inhibitory index in comparison with the rest six plants. Fennel showed the most effective MGI against Ascochyta blight at laboratory. The result of the present study show that thyme and fennel would be great options to be considered in the integrated management programs of chickpea Ascochyta blight.

Legumes are the most important source of human food after cereals. More than 70 species of plant-parasitic nematodes have been reported from legumes of the world. Some of these nematodes cause great damage to these plants. Pratylenchoides ritteri is widespread in Iran on various plants such as legumes.

The number of P. ritteri nematodes per kg of soil in an infected field soil was counted and this soil was used for a greenhouse experiment. Nematode reproductive factor and some plant growth traits in six plants including; Broad bean, soybean, lentil, bean, mung bean, and Chickpea were studied under greenhouse and field conditions. Tests were performed in randomized complete block designs and the data were analyzed using SPSS 22 software.

All the plants were hosts for the nematode and the reproductive factor of the nematode was higher than one. The highest reproductive factor was found in soybean and the lowest in mung bean. Under greenhouse conditions, a decrease in most plant growth indices was observed in all infected plants. Among these plants, beans showed the largest decrease and mung bean the smallest decrease in growth indices.

Broad bean, soybean, lentil, bean, mung bean, and chickpea are hosts for P. ritteri and this nematode can cause decreases in most plant growth indices.

One of the main problems in the production of chickpeas in most of the provinces where chickpea is cultivated including west and north-west provinces is the general and specific pests, including chickpea pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera. This project was conducted in a randomized complete block design in Kermanshah and Lorestan provinces with seven treatments in three replications. Treatments included, Lofenuron 2 l/1000 l , Roy Agro 1 l/1000 l , Biolep P 1 l/1000 l , insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis Ber, (Biotech Indian)  with three doses of 1000, 600 and 400 grams per hectare. The efficacy of the insecticides was investigated 3 and 7 days after the treatment, and the number of damaged pods was recorded at the mentioned time intervals, and the percentage of damage of the pods was calculated. The results showed that the treatments were significantly different in efficacy and the percentage of damage and B. thuringiensis-based insecticides were statistically effective (75 to 81%) in controlling chickpea pod borer after seven days.  Biolep P biological pesticide showed 68.79 and 81.27% and Bt (Biotech India) 74.59 and 79.99% efficacy in Lorestan and Kermanshah provinces respectively. There was no significant difference in efficacy percentage between the biological pesticides and Roy Agro pesticide. The biopesticide Biolep showed no significant difference in terms of efficacy and damage percentage in comparison with the Biotech India biopesticide. The results show that if the pest is not controlled (control), the percentage of damage on chickpea pods is about 40%, but with the use of biological pesticides, this damage could be reduced to less than 10%.

In 2018, a drastic Ascochyta blight epidemic on chickpea crops occurred in the Northwest of Iran. A survey was conducted in the region to identify races of Ascochyta rabiei and estimate the yield loss. Infected plant samples were taken from an infected field in Pasvah region and transferred to the lab at Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (DARI), Maragheh. In addition to A. rabiei, a Cladosporium-like taxa is also isolated from plants showing disease symptoms. Based on morphological characteristics and DNA sequence comparisons, isolates of this fungus were identified as Cladosporium halotolerans. Pathogenicity tests and Koch’s postulates were verified and fulfilled on chickpeas under controlled conditions. The disease symptoms developed on the host plant after 5 days after inoculation (dai) under controlled conditions included appearing yellow-brownish leaflets on the branches that latterly turned to wilt and were covered with gray-black mold. Histological studies also confirmed the pathogenicity of this fungus on chickpeas. Host range investigations were carried out on the further six species belonging to the Fabaceae, including garden pea, lentil, garden vetch, narbon vetch, bitter vetch, and grass pea. Results showed that this pathogen can produce the same disease symptoms on all inoculated, as well. This study represents the first attempt to pathogenicity of C. halotolerans on legumes in the world.

Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci is the most well-known and most common polyphagous thrips worldwide and is one of the major pests of legume fields, causing significant damage to various crops each year. In this study the life table parameters of onion thrips was studied on lentil and chickpea plants at laboratory conditions (25 ± 1°C, 70 ± 5% RH and 16: 8 h L: D). The total life cycle fromegg to adult and the mean adult longevity on lentil and chickpea plants were calculated as 13.81 and 15.81 days, and 13.44 and 13.91 days respectively. The females laid 43.90 and 24.84 eggs on average. The immature mortality was 10.37 and 19.78 on lentil and chickpea, respectively. The net reproductive rate (R0) was 39.51 and 20.22, and the intrinsic rate of increase (rm) was 0.185 and 0.133 respectively. The finite rate of increase (λ) was 1.20 and 1.14. However, mean generation time (T) and doubling time (DT) on two host plants was calculated as 19.81, 22.47 and 3.73, 5.18 day. The results showed that all of the life table parameters of T. tabaci on lentil plant were statistically significantly different from chickpea plant. According to these results, it seems that lentil is a more suitable host plant for onion thrips.

Chickpea is cultivated in the rotation with wheat and barley which plays an important role in the sustainable agriculture in the western provinces of Iran. The production of chickpea is strictly limited due to some devastating fungal diseases such as Aschochyta blight disease.

During 2017-2018, chickpea fields were monitored for the suspicious samples. Then, they were transferred to the laboratory. 100 samples were recovered from 20 local areas, and all isolates were categorized into 20 groups based on the geographical regions. From each group, one representative was selected for further studies. To investigate the pathogenicity and morphological diversity, three different chickpea varieties were selected for this study. This investigation was performed in the completely randomized block with three replications, and some resistant and production-related features were measured. To determine disease severity, a 0–9 rating scale was applied.

In this investigation, 100 isolates from 20 local areas were selected. Subsequently, one representative from each group was selected. Based on the analytical results, the isolates were different in the pathogenicity and morphological at one percent probability level. Analytical approaches showed that interaction between isolates and varieties were different at all measured features at one percent probability. Among the varieties, for features such as the weight of 100 seeds, the number of sheet in each plant, number of shoots in each plant, plant height, wet and dry weight of root and upper parts were different at five percent similarity level. The variety of ILC482 was the most proficient with an average of 35 grams in 100 seed weight. 100 seed weight and the number of pods were affected by the disease more than other parameters. The evaluation of disease showed the variation among pathogenicity and morphological traits among isolates. In surveying the morphological parameters of isolates on CSMDA media, considerable differences were observed in colony color, pycnidium shape, and pycnidiospore. The isolates were divided into three groups: highly aggressive, medium aggressive and least aggressive based on the pathogenicity results. The isolates IL8, IL9, and IL10 had the highest pathogenicity on all cultivars. The isolate IL10 had the highest effect on morphological characteristics.

Resistant variety is the best method of control Ascochyta blight due to the high price of fungicides and their harms to the environment. Unfortunately, resistance is not durable for a long time because of the fungal population's diversity. The interaction of differential chickpea varieties and fungal isolates showed different virulence (p < /em><0.01).It indicates that varieties are in different levels of resistance level. These variations are necessary for the identification and classification of virulence levels among the isolates. Differential varieties should contain different resistant genes. Analytical results showed that probable differences exist between varieties and isolates at one percent probability. Our results revealed that the functional features of chickpea are affected by Ascochyta blight.

In order to study the effect of cultivar and planting time on control of chickpea pod borer, Heliothis viriplaca, an experiment was conducted in a factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications in a field in Bokan, Iran. The first factor was chickpea cultivars, including Adel, Grit, Jam, Azakan and Mansour, and the second factor was three planting times on March 19th, April 4th and April 20th. Analysis of variances showed that there were significant differences among different cultivars and different planting times for all studied traits (p < 0.01). Interaction of cultivar and planting time were significant on all studied traits except the 100 seeds weight (p < 0.05). The highest number of pods per plant (17.66±0.57pods), the number of infested pod per plant (5.11±11.44pods/plant), number of infested seeds (3.01±0.97seeds/plant), 100 seeds weight (41.27±2.31g), dry matter yield (2872.6±19.52kgha-1) and grain yield (1915.0±131.69kgha-1) were observed in the Adel cultivar on March 19th. The highest number of pod borers per plant (1.20±0.22larvae/plant) and infestation percent (48.90±4.17%) was belonged to the Jam cultivar at the planting time of March 19th. Based on the interaction of cultivar and planting time, the lowest number of pod borers larvae, the number of infected pods per plant, the pod infestation and the number of infested seeds were belonged to the Adel cultivar at the planting time of April 19th, and the highest number of pods per plant, dry matter yield and grain yield were observed in the Adel cultivar at the planting time of March 20th.

Transient and persistence of weed seed banks impact on weed population dynamics. Therefore, any management tools with having a reducing role can affect weed population size. Reduction of weed seed rain using effective control tools can reduce weed density. The seed bank density is the main factor corresponding to seedling density. Decline of seed bank is critical to success in crop production, so that,   poor performance in weed control only for a season cause to rain weed seeds and to improve soil seed bank. Most of the commonly used herbicides recommended for controlling weeds in wheat fields are not efficiently able to control the wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch). Hence, utilizing appropriate agronomic strategies to control this weed is critical. Evaluation the effect of wild barley spike cut-off in the previous wheat field, and the effects of chickpea planting date and chemical weed control in chickpea cultivation in rotation on wild barley weed population in chickpea cultivation are among the aims of this study.

The effect of wild barley spike cut-off in the previous wheat field, and sowing date and management strategies in chickpea on its population in chickpea for the following years was evaluated in Khorramabad, Lorestan, Iran during 2009-10 and 2010-11 growing seasons. The experiment was arranged in a factorial split plot in a completely randomized block design with three replications.  The wild barley spike cut-off in wheat (at two levels: No cut-off and with cut-off) and chickpea planting date in the next season (at two levels: early planting and late planting) were assigned into the main plots. Chickpea weed management treatments (at five levels: pre emergence application of metribuzin at 0.7 kg per hectare, pre emergence application of imazethapyr 0.7 litter per hectare, post emergence application of Clethodim 1 liter per hectare, weed free treatment, and weedy infest)was assigned into the sub plots.

Wild barley spike cut-off in previous wheat reduced 71% of the density and biomass of this weed in chickpea cultivation in the following years. This suggests the importance of recent year's wild barley seeding rain in the completion of the soil seed bank for the next season. Early planting of chickpea compared to late planting decreased the wild barley density by 75%. It was mainly related to the ineffectiveness of planting operations in full control of the large wild barley plants in the late planting treatment. Early planting of chickpea under wild barley weed spike cut-off in previous wheat crop condition, was completely free of wild barley. Accordingly, the prevention of wild barley seed rain and the completion of the soil seed bank in the previous year, along with the timely planting of chickpea led to full control of this weed. Triple interaction effects of experiment factors on wild barley biomass in chickpea was statistically significant. This suggests the difference of wild barley biomass response to weed management treatments in different planting date of chickpea in spike cut-off and without spike cut-off of wild barley in the previous wheat crop. In addition to manual weeding treatments in different conditions, all weed management practices, even uncontrolled weedy check, in early chickpea planting under spike cut-off of wild barley conditions in wheat cultivation in the previous year, did not emerged any wild barley seedling. This indicates the high efficiency of spike cut-off of wild barley in the previous year and the prevention of seeding and the timely planting of chickpeas in the management of this weed.

Thus, it seems that the major part of the growing population of this weed is dependent on previous year seed rain. In the other words, the wild barley population dynamics is largely dependent on the temporary transient seed bank instead of a persistent seed bank. This suggests the possibility of managing problematic wild barley and reducing its population below the economic damage threshold through prevention of seed rain and soil seed bank management.

Blight disease caused by Mycosphaerella rabiei is the major constraint for chickpea production worldwide. Pathogenicity of pathogen and the analysis of its genetic diversity in pathogen population are necessary for management of the disease. Different strategies such as seed treatment, application of resistant cultivars, adjustment sowing date and integration of resistant genotype with post-infection application of fungicides have been recommended to reduce the losses caused by the disease. The use of resistant cultivars is the best management strategy to minimize yield losses due to blight. But because of the considerable variation in pathogenicity of the fungal population and partial resistance in germplasm of chickpea the effectiveness of resistant cultivars is limited. Different aspects of the biology, pathogenic and genetic diversity, resistance inheritance and the management options are discussed in this paper.

Safflower fly, Acanthiophilus helianthi Rossi (Diptera: Tephritidae), is one of the important pests of safflower in the world. The intercropping pattern can be one of the suitable and safe methods to control the pest. Therefore, the influenceof different intercropping patterns of chickpea and safflower (sole cropping of safflower, replacement series consisted of 4:4, 2:2, 1:1, 3:1, 1:3, and additive series consisted of 20 and 40% chickpea in two situations: between and around of safflower rows) on the population density and infestation rate of this pest was studied in a randomized complete block design at the research field of Kurdistan University. Results showed that different intercropping patterns affected the population density of the pest significantly. The population density of the pest in all intercropping patterns of chickpea and safflower except 20% I pattern was lower than the sole cropping of safflower. 1:3 and 3:1 intercropping patterns resulted in the lowest average population density of the pest among other cropping patterns (18.33 ± 0.6 and 220 ± 3, respectively). Studying the infestation rate of the pest also showed thatthe mean density percentages of the infested capitula per plant were significantly different among the cropping patterns, and 1:3 and 3:1 intercropping patterns had the lowest mean densities of the infestation rate (6.1 ± 1.1 and 8.3 ± 0.5%, respectively). According to the results, 1:3 and 3:1 intercropping patterns showed a high potential for using in the integrated management of safflower fly among the other studied patterns.

Yellowing is one of the most prevalent symptoms in chickpea fields, worldwide and Iran. Faba bean necrotic yellows virus (FBNYV, genus Nanovirus, family Nanoviridae) is associated with the yellowing symptoms in the chickpea fields. During the survey of the Lorestan and Kermanshah provinces in May 2015-2016, chickpea plants showing yellowing symptoms were collected and total DNAs were extracted. The samples were checked for nanovirus infection by PCR, using nanovirus-specific degenerate primers. Total DNA preparations from the nanovirus-positive samples were used for RCA, using φ29 polymerase and restriction endonuclease Aat II digests yielding products of ~1kb corresponding to linearized nanovirus DNA components. FBNYV genomic components were amplified using RCA products and specific primers of eight different U1, M, N, C, S, R, U2, and U4 components. The amplified fragments were purified and sequenced. Nucleotide sequences of the eight different components of three Iranian isolates of FBNYV (Lor-28, Lor-1, and Ker-21) were compared with FBNYV sequences in GenBank. Sequence comparison indicated that Iranian isolates of FBNYV are most similar to Azerbaijan isolates of FBNYV: FBNYV-[AZ; 12], and FBNYV-[AZ; 13.5]. Phylogenetic analyses of nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of DNA-S, C, and U1 revealed that Iranian FBNYV isolates clustered with Azerbaijan isolate FBNYV-[AZ;12 ](group II), while DNA-R, DNA-M, DNA-N, DNA-U2, and DNA-U4 clustered with FBNYV-[AZ; 13.5], (group I). Considering the genomic differences between two Azerbaijan isolates, which can be expected among Iranian isolates. These results may provide evidence of the reassortment occurrence among Iranian and Azerbaijan FBNYV isolates.

Chickpea is the third most important food legume of the world after common bean and pea. Ascochyta blight, caused by the fungus Didymella rabiei is one of the most important limiting factors in chickpea production. The use of resistant cultivars is the most effective and economical strategy for management of Ascochyta blight. Two hundred chickpea genotypes were screened to identify resistant sources against D. rabiei in Lorestan province during 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons in field conditions. Plants were inoculated by applying uniformly scattered infected chickpea debris after seedling emergence. The disease severity was scored on a scale of one to nine. The highest recorded reaction was used to categorize resistance of the genotypes. Also the reaction of chickpea genotypes was evaluated under growth chamber conditions. The results showed that none of the genotypes was highly resistant and the frequency of resistant genotypes was low. On the basis of field and growth chamber evaluations, 11 genotypes were moderately resistant and can be employed as resistant sources in chickpea breeding programs to develope resistant cultivars to Ascochyta blight.

In order to determine the efficacy of the new insecticide lufenuron (Flagu® EC 5%) with two concentrations of 1.5:1000 (300 ml/ha) and 2:1000 (400 ml/ha) on Heliothis viriplaca, in comparison with Thiodicarb DF 80% at 5:1000 (1 Kg/ha), B.T (Raha Andish Kavan) at 12.5:1000 (2/5L/ha), Indoxacarb (Avaunt® SC15%) at 1.25:1000 (250 ml/ha) a randomized complete block design experiment was conducted in Kordestan (with 4 replicates) and Kermanshah provinces (with 5 replicates) in the crop year 2015. By continuous visiting, when the amount of pests reached about 2-3.9 larvae/square meter, insecticides were sprayed on the treatment plots, and water was sprayed on the control treatment. Live larvae were counted, a day before spraying, 3 and 7 days after treatments in experimental plots and the control. Sampling was carried out by taking 10 plants from the middle line of each plot, and the live larvae on the samples were counted. The results show that the lowest number of infected pods in 10 plants and the lowest number of live larvae on the 7th day after spraying the plants in both the provinces were registered by lufenuron at the concentration of 2:1000. Efficacy of lufenuron (2:1000) at the 7th day after spraying was recorded to be 96.2±3.32% in Kermanshah and 94.75±5.25 % in Kordestan which were the highest among the treatments.

Blight, caused by Mycosphaerella rabiei is the most important disease of chickpea in Iran. In order to find a method for the biological control of the disease, the inhibitory effect of 36 isolates of three species, Trichoderma harzianum, T. virens and T. atroviride, on a most virulent isolate of the pathogen, in hyperparasitism, dual culture, and production of volatile antibiotic compounds were investigated in vitro. Then the impact of the nine selected isolates of Trichoderma on the disease severity and growth of chickpea were tested in greenhouse. The results showed that the inhibitory ability of mycelium growth of the pathogen by isolates of T. harzianum, up to 52.42%, were greater than the others in plate assay. Also they had greater ability in reducing of disease severity in greenhouse condition. Some isolates of T. harzianum and T. atroviride had ability to promote the growth of chickpea in the presence of the pathogen with no significant difference as compared with the healthy control. It is the first report of the ability of these Trichoderma species in the biological control of this disease on chickpea.

Effects of date and depth of sowing on incidence of chickpea wilt incited by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri and crop yield were evaluated on three chickpea cultivars in Lorestan, Kohdasht during 2014, using a factorial experiment based on RCBD design with four replications. Sowing date with three levels of early November, early December and early March were used as main plots. Planting depth including 5, 9 and 13 cm depth were used as sub plots and three chickpea cultivars including Adell, Hashem and Arman were used as sub sub plots. Rows were 30 cm apart and distance between seeds in a row was 10 cm. The rate and severity of disease symptoms were recorded every 7 to 10 days. The results showed that the effect of planting date on all the indicators, yield & disease severity was significant. Statistical analysis showed that sowing in March resulted in highest infection and lowest yield compared with the earlier sowing dates. Advancing the sowing date from early March to early October doubled the crop yield and decreased disease by 41 percent. Different depths of sowing did not show significant differences in yield nor disease incidence. Interaction of sowing depth × cultivars, however, revealed that highest yield was obtained in the third sowing depth in Adell cultivar.