جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "water use" در نشریات گروه "آبخیزداری، بیابان، محیط زیست، مرتع"

Climatic characteristics such as dry and semi-arid climate, lack of rainfall, long periods of drought in the country, and lack of rains in the seasons when the agricultural sector needs water resources have caused the decrease of underground water resources every year more than the previous year. Even beyond that, it becomes a challenge for policymakers, decision-makers, operators, farmers, and industrial sector employers. The numerous types of research that have been conducted in the field of underground water resources in the Water Resources Research Quarterly between the years 2006 and 2022 show that the importance of this issue is not only in the discourse governing water policymakers but also among experts and academics. Therefore, the present research, based on a systematic review approach to the pathology of previous studies, deals with the subject of articles related to underground water resources in the Quarterly Journal of Water Resources Research and reveals the factors affecting it based on the accumulation of the mentioned research results. To fulfill this aim, several questions were asked: 1- What methods have been used in the studies related to underground water resources published in the Iranian Water Resources Research Quarterly? 2- To what extent have the methods of these articles been able to cover appropriate solutions to solve problems related to underground water resources?

The current study was conducted with a systematic review approach. First, in order to increase the accuracy of the research, a checklist of eligible articles was prepared during the years 2006-2022, which included components such as the research method, the number of authors, the year of conducting the research, and the tendency of the authors of the article.After reviewing the papers, 38 articles discussing underground water sources, both in the topic and in the content, were selected as a statistical sample. In this sense, almost all articles related to the topic of "groundwater resources" were reviewed.

The findings of the research showed that among the 38 papers in terms of the number of authors, the largest number of studies are related to the articles that had more than two authors (22 cases), followed by the ones with two authors (12 cases), and the articles that were done by one person allocated the lowest amount (4 cases). Regarding the disciplines of the authors of the articles, it should be said that most of the articles are by researchers in the fields of water resources engineering, water resources management, water and development, irrigation and drainage, and hydraulic structures (30 articles), researchers in the fields of mapping, rural development, water and development, and geography (4 articles), researchers in the fields of environment, watershed management (4 articles), and researchers in interdisciplinary fields such as archeology and sociology (2 articles) were ranked next in terms of the number of published articles. Regarding the years that have been published in the Quarterly Journal of Water Resources Research, it can be said that most of the studies were published in 2022 (8 articles), and the least number published in the field of groundwater resources is related to 2006, 2008, and 2015 (1 article). In terms of methodology, the largest number of articles is related to the articles that have investigated the state of water resources and aquifers with the method of scenario creation and future research (15 articles). This scenario development is either quantitative and numerical analysis or qualitative analysis and future research. The studies that have been done with numerical simulation, modelling, and factor modelling (11 articles) and analytical research (5 articles) have the largest number of articles after the studies related to scenario creation.

This research was carried out with the aim of methodological pathology of the articles related to the topic of underground water resources that were published in the Iranian Quarterly of Resources Research from 2006 to 2022 and was intended to answer these two questions: 1- What methods have been used in the studies related to underground water resources published in the Iranian Water Resources Research Quarterly? 2- To what extent have the methods of these articles been able to cover appropriate solutions to solve problems related to underground water resources? According to the findings, the authors suggested these ways: 1- Regulating the research in the field of underground water resources, 2- Allocating part of the articles to the discussion of methodology (even modelling and numerical articles), 3- Attempting to conduct studies in the field of social impact assessment (ETA) so that policymakers are aware of the consequences of the projects carried out, 4- Emphasizing innovation, using various qualitative methods (ethnographic and phenomenological methods), and paying more attention to the use of newer methods. 5- And most importantly, turning to sociological analyses related to underground water articles.

Water governance is a controversial concept, and rather than being based on knowledge of the governance method, it is considered an ideal model with specific and predefined indicators. Meanwhile, governance will result in the sustainability of water resources when it is defined and regulated according to the conditions. Because governance regulates the way of managing resources, it can vary according to the dominant discourse of each era. For this purpose, the present research tried to achieve a historical understanding of water governance patterns in different periods after the Islamic Revolution of Iran by using the methodology of discourse analysis and examining its effect on water resources management.

The method used in this research was discourse analysis. Based on this, the present study, with a historical approach, tried to discover the dominant discourse in every era and its effect on the way of managing water resources. The target period was from the 1978 revolution to the end of the twelfth government. In order to discover the dominant discourse, the text of the President's speech, the description of the deliberations of the Islamic Council, the text of water laws and development plans, and the approvals of the Supreme Water Council were examined. Therefore, in the results obtained, five decades after the revolution, the water governance period was divided into five periods, and political documents and texts and the description of the deliberations of the Islamic Council were used to evaluate it.

The results of the evaluation showed that what has determined the governance of water in Iran was not the governance that is proportional to the country's hydrological power but rather the governance that emerged from the political and international discourse. As in the periods when the ruling discourse was based on justice and the support of the government in economic matters (more emphasis on left-wing policies), the facilitation of water resource extraction, especially underground water, has intensified. During the periods when the ruling discourse was based on structural adjustment and privatization policies (with more emphasis on the right-wing economic liberalization policies), the development of surface water resources was the dominant model of water governance. Also, in many cases, there has been alignment between the government and the parliament in setting policies and laws against the sustainability of water resources. In cases where inequality has been evident, the government has sought to protect water resources in contrast to patterns that facilitate the extraction of resources.

The study of the history of water governance in Iran showed that in the dominant discourses on water governance after the revolution, the approach of protecting water resources along with the approach of self-sufficiency and development, which is still prominent in policymaking despite the worsening of the crisis, has not been able to lead the way. As far as we can say, the water protection policy has remained only as a slogan in many programs. It is based on this that the issues in water resources management policy have become chronic and are always repeated. This situation implies that water governance in Iran was not based on proportional governance, and as a result, the main goal of protecting water resources should be abandoned, and the improvement of the governance structure in accordance with the capacity of each region should be considered.

Low rainfall with improper temporal and spatial distribution is a significant problem in arid and semi-arid areas. Due to the lack of water resources and the increasing water demand, access to new water resources is necessary. Rainwater collection is one of the most prominent methods of rainwater exploitation management to deal with water shortage which is developing rapidly in many areas. Considering the diversity and breadth of rainwater collection methods, serious attention should be paid in choosing the influencing factors and the type of criteria combination method. In this article, in order to determine the places prone to the construction of rain catchment surfaces for livestock drinking, first the effective factors were determined with the studies conducted and the characteristics of the area.Seven factors were considered, including slope, land use, soil depth, distance from fault and waterway, proximity to livestock farming, and prevailing wind direction.The factors were ranked using the fuzzy logic technique.This involved dividing them into nine separate parts. A geographic information system was then used to overlap these layers. The results of this overlap were classified into five classes: poor, average, relatively good, good, and very good.The rainwater collection areas for each class were 44.01, 53.94, 30.31, 30.48 and 12.51 km², respectively. Also,Based on the results of fuzzy logic, the south and southeast part of the region had the first priority for the construction of rain catchment surfaces.Therefore, it can be used to collect rainwater and store it for future use.The findings of this research work will help policy makers and decision makers to implement different rainwater collection structures in the study area to overcome water shortage problems

Rivers, as vital water resources, play an essential role in maintaining the health of the environment and living organisms. The rivers bordering the Caspian Sea are recognized as the most accessible surface water sources and, unfortunately, are often utilized as dumping grounds for pollutants. These rivers have a close connection with populated areas and economic activities, which is why the management issues related to them have significantly escalated. The quality of river water directly affects the health of humans and aquatic ecosystems. Pollution resulting from human activities, such as wastewater discharge, can lead to serious health and environmental problems. For example, research by Rostami and colleagues has demonstrated the negative impact of urban wastewater on the water quality of the Kanger River, which is also true for the Talaar River. These challenges necessitate multifaceted management and scientific approaches to develop protective strategies. Golamian and Yildirim's studies highlighted the impact of land-use changes on the intensity of floods and erosion, emphasizing the need for a detailed analysis of these changes. This research examines the damages inflicted on the Talaar River and provides a framework for analyzing similar hazards in other rivers across the country. The findings of this research underscore the necessity of collaboration among government agencies, local authorities, and civil society to create effective solutions for the sustainable management of water resources. By gaining a deep understanding of the existing challenges and adopting comprehensive management practices, we can help protect these valuable resources and improve the overall quality of public life.

The WRASTIC index is a systematic approach for assessing the susceptibility of watersheds to polluting surface water resources, based on key characteristics of the watershed and land use within a hydrogeological environment. This method became popular starting in 2000 and is considered one of the most comprehensive risk assessment methods for surface waters when compared to other techniques. In this approach, several factors within a watershed are meticulously evaluated to determine the sensitivity to surface water pollution, including wastewater discharge (W), effects of recreational land use (R), effects of agricultural land use (A), watershed size (S), transportation pathways (T), effects of industrial land use (I), and the extent of vegetation cover (C). The numerical values assigned to the aforementioned parameters in the WRASTIC model are used in equation to calculate the WRASTIC index value for a given watershed:
WRASTIC Index=WrWw+RrRw+ArAw+SrSw+TrTw+IrIw+CrCw
In this equation, the index (r) is used to assign scores to each parameter, while the index (w) represents the weight of the parameter. The values of (w) range from 1 to 4, and the values of (r) range from 1 to 5, with the industrial parameter being assigned a range of 1 to 8. According to the above equation, the higher the numerical value of this index, the greater the potential for pollution within the watershed. It is worth noting that for a better and more accurate assessment, the input of professionals should be utilized.

The results of the WRASTIC index assessment for the watershed of the Talaar River indicate a medium sensitivity to pollution, with a score of 5.26. This score raises concerns regarding the influx of urban and industrial wastewater, agricultural runoff, and the discharge of sewage from soakaway pits. These pollution sources pose a significant risk of severe contamination to the river, leading to consequences such as eutrophication and a decline in water quality. Furthermore, the increasing population in areas near water resources has led to land-use changes, resulting in a higher runoff coefficient and intensified flooding occurrences. These conditions may cause serious damage to infrastructures, natural ecosystems, and public health. Another weakness of the WRASTIC index is the neglect of the status of wildlife and natural habitats that are at risk, mainly due to deforestation and poaching. These issues not only threaten the biodiversity of the region but also adversely affect the ecological balance and water quality. Therefore, there is a clear need to establish a comprehensive and new framework for more accurately assessing pollution levels and maintaining ecological balance in this area. Making informed decisions and implementing proper management practices can improve water quality and contribute to the protection of the environment and biodiversity. The sustainable management and preservation of water resources and habitats require serious attention and collaboration from all stakeholders to make the best use of these sensitive and valuable ecosystems.

Crisis management and analysis of existing challenges require precise identification of damaging factors and the development of a comprehensive framework to explain the relationships between these factors. Such a framework can assist in classifying the damages incurred and improving risk management and crisis response. By examining and analyzing the damages from both temporal and spatial perspectives, a comprehensive crisis management approach can be realized. Thus, in the Talar River watershed, the presence of multiple challenges, including declining water quality, changes in hydrological regimes, alterations in adjacent land use, disregard for riverbed and buffer zone protections, illegal constructions, soil erosion, and excessive extraction of materials, necessitate the identification, management, and prioritization of existing issues to safeguard water quality and ensure environmental sustainability.

Soil is the basis of biological resources and life on the earth. Soil stability is one of the key indicators that it used to performance evaluation of soil structure against soil erosion. In fact, the aggregates stability indicates the resistance of the soil structure against external forces such as the raindrops impact and splash erosion. The raindrops energy is one of the main factors in the disintegration of soil aggregates in water erosion. The usage of different conditioners on the surface or inside soil is closely related to various processes such as surface sealing, infiltration, runoff, evaporation and finally soil erosion. Considering the importance of the aggregates stability soil erosion control, increasing the particles diameter on the soil surface can be one of the ways to prevent their movement and by erosive factors. The literatures review showed that the bentonite conditioner as a mineral conditioner can play the effective role in stability changes of aggregates, especially in degraded soils. Therefore, the purpose of present research is to the usage of bentonite conditioner on the changes of soil surface aggregates.

In the present research, the conditioner of bentonite mineral used in amounts of 30, 15 and 45% of soil surface coverage and in three replications. At the first, collected soil from rangeland land to depth of 20 cm transferred to laboratory and was exposed to air-dry and passed through sieve of 4-mm. Then the soil was poured into the splash cups and placed under rainfall simulator with a rainfall intensity of 90 mm h-1 and a duration of 10 min. Surface soil before and after application of rainfall simulator was collected with depth of 2-mm with amount of about 50 g of the surface of splash cups and the aggregates stability was calculated using the method of wet sieve. In the method of wet sieve, the remaining soil on each sieve was drained into marked containers using washing method and then and was put to rest for 24 h. After draining the excess water of samples, the remaining sediment was transferred the appropriate containers with specific weight. Finally dried for 24 h at oven with temperature of 105˚C. Finally, the application effect of the bentonite conditioner on the variables of aggregation and aggregates stability was calculated using SPSS software.

According to the conservation function and the average diameter of the soil aggregates using bentonite conditioner in three values of 15, 30 and 45 percent and based on diameter classes >500, 250-500, 125-250, 100-125, 100- 53, 38-53 and <38 micrometer, the results showed that the average diameter of soil aggregates significantly changed under the effect of bentonite conditioner. The average mass of the aggregates in the control treatment was with rates of 0.82, 1.88, 6.82, 3.37, 9.53, 4.62 and 20.36 g respectively, in the mentioned diameters, and with bentonite conditioner in the amount of 15% was with rates of 1.16, 2.63, 8.17, 4.46, 10.81, 4.02 and 17.68 g, respectively. Also, in the conditioner with the amount of 30%, this variable was the rates of 0.84, 2.42, 93. 7, 4.32, 11.03, 3.46 and 17.38 g and in the amount of 45% was the amounts of 0.81, 1.96, 6.95, 3.53, 10.01, 3.51 and 31 It was 19 g, respectively. The results of GLM test showed that the effect of bentonite conditioner on the variables D10, D10/ D90 and sorting was significant in level of 95% and on the variables D50, D90, D90- D10, D75- D25 and skewness was significant in level of 99%. But the bentonite effect was not significant on the variable D75/ D25 and kurtosis. Also, the results of Duncan test showed that the bentonite conditioner with rates of 15 and 30% had the better effects on the stability of soil aggregates and increasing the average aggregates diameter.

The obtained results from this research showed that bentonite conditioner can act as a protector against the raindrops and reducing soil erosion with creating adhesion on the soil surface. According to the results of the present research, it is suggested that the first, the more researches be conducted due to the soil conditions and natural rainfall and then the optimal values of bentonite be determined by erosion management and runoff.

Wind erosion contributes to climate change on both global and local scales, causing changes in biological, geological, and chemical cycles. Exerting adverse effects on the environment and human health, the phenomenon also brings about the loss of vegetation and the reduction in water resources. In this regard, carrying out biological recovery projects to be used as windbreaks is regarded as a highly effective method for combating wind erosion. However, due to the scarcity of water in desert areas, plant planting poses some serious threats to the implementation of the above-mentioned projects, requiring the observance of water management techniques. On the other hand, improper irrigation leads to the loss of large amounts of water through evaporation, causing stress in the irrigated plants. According to the predictions, the world will face a 40% water shortage by 2030. Thus, should the shortage continue to grow, many regions worldwide will experience severe water shortages or droughts in the near future. Located in the desert belt of the world and enclosed in relatively high mountain fences, Iran is threatened by the phenomenon of dryness in such a way that two-thirds of its area is now at risk of being caught by the phenomenon. The current research selected the Qom province (one of the 22 desert provinces in Iran) as its study area where high temperature and poor water quality have challenged the implementation of biological projects. Currently, the Iranian Organization of Forests, Pastures, and Watershed Management Common methods uses 30 liters of water every two weeks as its main irrigation method for the plants that grow in the province. Considering a treatment in which half of such amount of water (15 liters) is used for irrigation water, this study sought to assess the efficiency of the treatment on the Haloxylon ammodenderon plant.. 

Characterized by high-temperature rates in summer, low annual precipitation, hot winds during the dry season, dry cold in winter, and temperature fluctuations in different seasons, Qom province does not have a favorable climate due to its proximity to desert areas. In the traditional method of planting a seedling, a hole with a depth of 50 cm is dug, the plant is placed in the center of the pit, and the irrigation is done by surface method. This study investigated both 15-liter and 30-liter treatments made within two-week, three-week, and four-week irrigation intervals to compare the morphological indicators of the plant during the intended growth season (May to November). Moreover, variance analysis was conducted via SPSS statistical software to compare the variance between treatments and Duncan's test, seeking to identify potential differences between treatments (at a confidence level of 5%). On the other hand, the study used the Haloxylon ammodenderon as a halophyte plant with a wide vegetative range, considering the fact that the plant is indigenous to Qom province, characterized by its high resistance and adaptability in harsh conditions. It should be noted that while the average annual precipitation rate of the province is reported to range from 40 to 200 mm, the plant grows well and remains fresh. 

Thirteen physical and chemical characteristics of the study area’s soil were tested in five points. Accordingly, it was found that the region’s soil had a sandy clay loam texture with a salinity of 1.92 Decisiemens per meter and a pH of 7.19 with an average of 0.57% organic matter, 24.2% lime, 16.8% sulfate, and 0.2% gypsum. Moreover, solutes such as calcium, magnesium, carbonate, bicarbonate, and chlorine were found to be 13.6, 24, 0, 8.2, and 33.2 milliequivalents per liter, respectively. On the other, as Qom province suffers from low urban water quality, the study used the wastewater located near the study area. The results suggested that morphological characteristics such as height, trunk diameter, growth index, and canopy diameter significantly differed at the 5% level, while no significant difference was found in terms of root depth, aerial and root weight, and survival rate. As 90% of soil particles move within 30 cm of the ground surface, the shape of the canopy can effectively prevent their movement. As for the measurement of the canopy cover of the 30- and 15-liter treatments in two, three, and four weeks’ periods after irrigation, the results showed that the 30-liter treatment had better canopy dimensions, which exerted a significant influence on reducing wind speed, receiving more rainwater, and reducing runoff.The necessary water for the implementation of biological recovery projects in dry areas is provided through irrigation due to low and scattered rainfall. In Iran, water management is faced with challenges such as the shortage of water resources, environmental dryness, waste of water resources in the agricultural sector due to traditional irrigation, etc. The results of this study indicated that the 30-liter treatment performed better in terms of the plants’ height in all three irrigation intervals. Moreover, the treatment presented better results in terms of rooting when tested in the tree-weak interval, while no significant difference was found between the two treatments under a two-week irrigation interval. However, the 15-liter treatment had a greater rooting depth than the 30-liter one in four weeks of irrigation. As for the canopy diameter, aerial and root weight, and growth index, the 30-liter treatment revealed better performance. On the other hand, the percentage of survival in the 30-liter treatment was better in two-week and four-week irrigation periods than those of the 15-liter treatment, but the difference is very small. According to the comparison of the results of canopy dimensions and morphological characteristics, it can be concluded that the 30-liter treatment was definitely better. However, the results obtained for the 15-liter treatment can be acceptable in terms of reduction in irrigation costsFor this purpose, in two irrigation treatments of 30 and 15 liters of water on haloxylon ammodenderon plants, morphological plant characteristics such as height, root depth, collar diameter, aboveground and underground weight, growth index, and crown diameter were evaluated during a growing season (from may to October ) in irrigation intervals of 2, 3, and 4 weeks. The research results showed that, although the 30-liter treatment had better performance in all three irrigation intervals compared to the 15-liter treatment, there was no significant difference in some characteristics between them. Therefore, it can be concluded that considering the reduction in irrigation costs and water savings, the 15-liter treatment volume is acceptable and economically justified.

The environmental degradation model is an environmental impact assessment method that analyzes and quantitatively quantifies the effects of human activities and ecological changes on the environment. Regarding the importance of Sistan’s Chah-Nimeh in the region, this study aims to evaluate the degradation of the Chah-Nimeh of Sistan using the Makhdoum Ecological Demonstration Model (2002).  After dividing the Chah-Nimeh into 28 cells of 50 ha and separating the area of the Chah-Nimeh into three affected areas, including the educational and recreational complex of Baqiyatullah Azam, the agricultural lands of the city, the reproduction and cultivation center of fisheries, and the agricultural lands of Qale Nou, water sampling was performed from 12 points affecting water quality. Physical and chemical factors of water, including biological oxygen, chemical oxygen, total soluble solids, nitrate, nitrite, acidity, alkalinity, phosphate, electrical conductivity, and sulfate were measured as sources of destruction and effects on aquatic life. Physiological density was also obtained by dividing the villagers around the Chah-Nimeh to a radius of 2000 m in each working network on the extent of the land to be exploited in each area. The results obtained and data collection using aquaculture standards indicate that the total area of Chah-Nimeh is classified as an area requiring reconstruction. Accordingly, 21 networks covering 75% of the area have 5–14.99 degradation factors. In addition, seven networks are located in the northern part of the semi-well (affected area of agricultural lands of the city and the reproduction and cultivation center of fisheries), with 25% of the area in the range of 15–19.99 degradation, which requires priority reconstruction.

Soil erosion, a significant form of land degradation, poses severe challenges to humanity in different ecosystems. It serves as a comprehensive index for evaluating the development and sustainability of land management programs. Assessing the status and spatial extent of soil erosion has become crucial in developing countries. Biological management, a recommended and effective means of controlling soil erosion in the early stages of all processes, offers a practical solution. Biological methods, such as minimum tillage operations and limited intervention in nature, prove to be more cost-effective and efficient than structural measures. Despite these advantages, biological measures have not received adequate attention in soil erosion control. This research addresses this gap by applying biological management in the Kilanbar Watershed (Kermanshah Province, Iran), demonstrating its effectiveness and cost-efficiency.

The layers of elevation from sea level, aspect, and slope steepness were prepared and combined in the geographic information system (GIS) software to prepare 38 land units. In the Kilanbar Watershed, 14 land units with the ability to perform biological management measures were extracted based on the expert and technical opinions of the watershed manager and considering different bases to improve the performance and decision-making of the units with an area of less than 300 ha. The Kilanbar Watershed is located in Ravansar City, west of Kermanshah Province. The study area is approximately 10798 ha. The highest and lowest elevation points of the watershed are 2183 and 1388 m above mean sea level, respectively. The mean annual precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity are 533 mm, 11.4 °C, and 45.1%, respectively. The status of soil erosion in each land unit was completed based on the scoring of the BLM form based on the visual and expert opinions, and a map of the erosion pattern was prepared in the land units. Ambrotropic and hyetographs were drawn using the 30-year precipitation and temperature data of the Ravansar synoptic station to determine the periods of drought and wet conditions and to identify suitable plants with the characteristics of the region. A climatic–agricultural map was prepared and integrated into the GIS using meteorological station data (temperature, precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration), and plant species were selected according to ecological expectations for watershed biological measures.

According to the BLM form results, one and eight land units are in partial and low erosion conditions, respectively, and five other land units are in medium erosion conditions. According to the erosion pattern map, the majority of the studied area, about 70% of the watershed, is in a low and medium erosion state, which naturally confirms the high ability to use appropriate biological measures to control soil erosion. According to ambrothermic and hyetograph measurements, June to September were dry months, and precipitation changes were more significant than temperature changes from October to May. According to the climatic–agricultural map, the region is divided into five classes. Class 4 (4819.3 ha) and Class 1 (364.83 ha) had the largest and smallest areas, respectively. Finally, the zoning of suitable rangeland species in the watershed showed that rangeland species of Asteragalus ascendes, Avena fatua, Picnomon sp., Achillea millefolium, Bromus tomentellus, and Hordum blubosum dominantly covered the region. Based on the study results, appropriate plant species were introduced for the studied watershed. Accordingly, conservation and reclamation measures were recommended to improve land productivity and ecological conditions and avoid land use changes for the study area. The essential measures include vegetation in rangeland ecosystems aiming at preventing the role of the canopy cover from directly impacting raindrops on the soil surface, increasing water infiltration in the soil, stabilizing soil aggregates due to roots extension, increasing grazing capacity and livestock production, and increasing its efficiency and productivity with time.

The findings of this study hold significant potential for the Kilanbar Watershed. The proposed biological erosion measures, tailored to the ecosystem's unique conditions, are effective, low-cost, and environmentally compatible. They offer a sustainable solution for managing soil and water resources in various ecosystems. Implementing these measures can significantly reduce soil erosion in the watershed, particularly in areas with low to moderate erosion status. This research is an essential initiative in applying biological erosion measures in the Kilanbar Watershed, demonstrating that soil erosion can be effectively and practically controlled in approximately 67% of the watershed through biological methods in the critical land-use areas of rangelands and agriculture. It is important to note that applying biological erosion measures requires comprehensive and integrated investigations, considering the different parts of the ecosystem. With these findings, the proposed approach in this research can be extended to other watersheds across the country, particularly those with slight to moderate erosion status, while maintaining the principle of comprehensiveness and respecting the unique conditions of each watershed.

Soil erosion and sediment yield in the watershed lead to environmental issues. Therefore, knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of soil erosion is a proper strategy for planning and prioritize solutions for implementing soil conservation measures at watershed scale. Since biological methods are based on the prevailing conditions of ecosystems, soil erosion can be controlled in the initial stages. However, the biological management of soil erosion has yet to be accepted due to the lack of a suitable implementation model by executive operations. The current research aimed to inhibit soil erosion using biological management in the rangeland areas of the Kojour Watershed located in Mazandaran Province, Iran, due to the predominance of manageable distributed erosion.

For this purpose, the primary layers of elevation above mean sea level, slope, and geology were determined for the Kojour Watershed, and appropriate work units were accordingly delineated. Then, the soil erosion status was assessed on the basis of the scoring table of the seven factors of the BLM model. The study was confined to the rangeland areas based on field surveys, interpretation of satellite images, and expert opinions. In the next step, the leaf area index (LAI) map was prepared to compare field measurements and remote sensing information. Then, Ambrothermic and hytergraph charts were developed, and the corresponding Bio-Climatological map was prepared for the study watershed. Ultimately, suitable species were selected from the phytosociological list considering an appropriate combination strategy of Competitor (C), Stress-tolerators (S) and Ruderals (R), and species.

First, 15 land units were delineated for the entire Kojour Watershed, out of which six rangeland-dominant sub-watersheds were selected to designate the biological management measures for soil erosion control. The BLM table was employed for the rangeland work units showing that three of the six rangeland sub-watersheds were classified as low erosion. The remaining three sub-watersheds also had moderate erosion status. In addition, the general condition of soil erosion in the rangeland areas of the study watershed, with a score of 37.16, is classified as low status. Also, examining erosion maps and the obtained indices indicated a high agreement between field measurements and remote sensing data. According to the Ambrothermic chart, June to September were dry, and August was the driest month of the year in the study area. It also used the scope of significant environmental changes and more uniform regional changes. In this regard, the distribution of the area in the four Bio-Climatological classes of the Kojour Watershed is the same, and it is considered according to the planning and erosion management classes. In the following, the species were selected according to the combined CSR strategy, including Stachys inflata benth, Bromus tomentellus, Artemisia siberi, Trifolium pratense, and Festuca arundinacea with a broad presence in the region.

The present study was conducted to present a biological management model of the rangeland areas for the Kojour Watershed. The results indicated that soil erosion can be efficiently controlled through biological management methods in 40% of the rangeland areas. It is worth mentioning that it uses a model of biological management of erosion, which requires integrated and comprehensive investigations that consider different parts of the ecosystem.

The role of water in agricultural development and economic growth is undeniable. The imbalance between water supply and demand in Iran has created a challenge for the management of water resources, especially in agriculture. Paying serious attention to water productivity and improving it through appropriate methods and policies is one of the most effective solutions to address the water crisis and enhance the quantity and quality of agricultural production. The concept of water productivity is to produce the best and most products with the least amount of water. Agricultural water productivity has received serious attention in recent years from scientific societies related to irrigation and agriculture. The variation in water productivity for different crops at the local level and in comparison with other countries with similar climatic conditions indicates the potential for increasing agricultural water productivity. In the present research, the productivity of agricultural and horticultural products was investigated through field surveys, field measurements, and remote sensing analyses.

First, the status of water resources in the aquifer, including changes in groundwater levels and programmable water, was investigated. Then, the water consumption of agricultural plants was calculated using the difference between effective rainfall and plant water requirement (evaporation-transpiration). In the next step, the cultivated area of Basht Aquifer was examined using Sentinel-2 satellite images in Google Earth Engine software. Yield, dates of planting and harvesting, and irrigation times for agricultural products were verified through questionnaires completed by farmers and experts. After that, the water requirement of the current cultivation pattern was calculated using the FAO Penman-Monteith method. Finally, the productivity of different products was determined by evaluating the products in terms of productivity.

The area of the alluvial aquifer was 45.5 km², with an average length of about 25 km and a width of 5 km. The total volume of discharge and extraction from groundwater resources was 39.723 MCM. The infiltration amount of the Basht alluvial aquifer was calculated to be 7.905 MCM. By joining the outflow streams, including transfer streams through different elevations, the aquifer was recharged with a total of 20.377 MCM. Calculations using the FAO Penman-Monteith method showed that the water requirements of the dominant crops in the aquifer, including citrus fruits, wheat, barley, corn, canola, watermelon, rice, legumes, and alfalfa, were 9170, 5630, 4821, 7863, 5411, 9291, 20234, 5225, and 14083 m³, respectively. In total, the amount of water consumed by the agricultural products of Basht Aquifer was nearly 45 MCM, which was approximately equivalent to 1 m³m⁻² of the cultivated area. This is 2.64 times higher than the amount of water that can be programmed for agriculture (17 MCM).

The cultivation pattern will be influenced by parameters such as the climatic compatibility of products, the potentials of water and soil resources, regional needs, customs and interests of local people, and economic evaluation and income from production. Any change in the cultivation pattern should consider all social, economic, and environmental factors. However, given the existing conditions of the water sources, any cultivation pattern (even those considering high income) that increases discharge compared to the aquifer's recharge sources will be dangerous for future sustainability and will cause groundwater salinization and aquifer subsidence. Cultivation of high water-consumption plants such as seed corn should be stopped due to the severe water conditions of the region, and more investment should be made in developing crops such as canola, which are better adapted to the region's climate.

Currently, drought poses a significant threat to food security due to reduced rainfall and increased agricultural demand. Its impact is particularly severe in arid and semi-arid regions, where populations are more vulnerable. Drought affects groundwater systems by initially lowering water supply, followed by a decline in groundwater levels and discharge. Compared to other types of drought, characteristics such as duration, intensity, and frequency alter groundwater systems.

Given the critical need for drought assessment and monitoring, this study investigated drought conditions in 12 areas within the Daranjir Watershed from 2002–2003 to 2017-2018. The watershed spans approximately 50,736.44 km² across Yazd and Kerman provinces, with elevations ranging up to 1,857.90 meters. Highlands cover 58.99% of the area, while plains cover 40.99%. Data on groundwater levels from observation wells were obtained from Iranian Water Resources Research Organization (Tamab) and regional water organizations in Yazd and Kerman provinces. Average monthly groundwater level values were then extracted from maps using inverse distance weighting interpolation in MATLAB. Groundwater drought conditions were subsequently calculated based on the Groundwater Resources Index (GRI) in MATLAB.

The GRI index calculations revealed severe droughts in Daranjir, Bardsir, and Qaryeh al-Arab deserts, with deficits of 81.38, 77.75, and 75.66, respectively. Qaryeh al-Arab experienced the longest drought, spanning 121 months, indicating the area's high intensity and prolonged drought conditions compared to other study areas. Mild droughts were the most frequent after normal drought across all study areas based on GRI index class frequencies.

Due to insufficient and highly variable atmospheric precipitation, drought is inevitable, especially in arid and semi-arid climates. Understanding drought severity and its impact on ecosystems is crucial for effective watershed resource management and optimal resource utilization. Continuous monitoring of groundwater levels due to drought and preparation of a comprehensive atlas for other watersheds in the country are recommended. Additionally, comparing drought conditions using appropriate models is essential. Short and long-term strategies are advised to mitigate this natural phenomenon, such as expanding greenhouse crop cultivation, utilizing drought-resistant crop varieties with high water efficiency, adopting pressurized irrigation systems, and implementing infrastructure projects to enhance groundwater and surface water storage, such as cement dams, reservoirs, and floodwater spreading systems in the study area.

Introduction and Goal:

In hydrological and water resources studies, the understanding of water balance components and changes holds great significance. Climate changes and human activities affect runoff changes, water resources management and sustainable development of society. In this regard, the current research was conducted with the aim of determining and comparing water balance changes using Budyko curve in Nir watershed, Ardabil province.

The Budyko curve was calculated for the Nair watershed in monthly, seasonal and annual time scales. In this study, the data of the rain gauge and evapotranspiration station of the watershed were also used in a statistical period of 33-years to calculate the average precipitation and evapotranspiration potential in the watershed. In the Budyko curve, the non-linear relationship that is limited by the physical limits of atmospheric water demand (PET>ET) and supply (P>ET) and the aridity index in the Budyko curve show the long-term water balance.

The results showed that, the trend of flow changes is directly related to the trend of weather components in annual time scale. Meanwhile, contrary to expectation, only in some seasons does the flow change process follow the change in climatic components. In addation, the Budyko curve analysis indicated that the amount of water consumption in the studied watershed regularly deviated from its predicted dependence on energy and water balance. The maximum, average and minimum ET for the studied years were obtained as 876.55, 431.85 and 277.88, respectively. Also, the maximum, average and minimum ratio of PET/P was 0.07, 0.05 and 0.02 respectively. In most of the years studied, the observational data aligned with the water limit range on the Budyko curve, indicating that the observed water consumption (AET/P) matched the predicted water consumption (PET/P). According to the results, the changes in AET/P are less in the years (1981, 1983, 1989, 1994, and 2010). Based on the changes in the values of PET/P and AET/P in the Budyko curve, the watershed ability to regulate AET can be considerable.

Conclusions and Suggestions:

The results of this study indicated that with increased temperature and decreased precipitation, the annual actual evapotranspiration of the watershed increased, leading to a reduction in runoff. The results can be the basis for providing management solutions and adapting to the climate change in order to optimally use the available water resources. In general, it can be said that the amount of potential evaporation in the studied watershed is more than the amount of precipitation. The study's findings can provide a basis for managing water resources under the limitations of climate change and human abstractions.

This research aims to analyze the spatial water footprint of agricultural products in four categories of blue, green, gray, and white water in Khiavchai sub-watersheds. To this end, the meteorological data (monthly rainfall and temperature) were used as input data for the CROPWAT program. The Google Earth images were used to map the land use areas and estimate the area of agricultural and rangelands. It was found that apples, sour cherries, cherries, walnuts, and grapes are the dominant crops produced in the orchard area. The four types of virtual waters of agricultural products were analyzed in four land uses, i.e., orchards, rainfed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, and rangelands. The total water consumed by the apple product is more than other products in all sub-watersheds and the amount of virtual water of walnut is also high in most sub-watersheds. The total consumption of blue, green, white, and gray water in sour cherry, cherry, and grape was the same and was evaluated as less than the other two products. In addition, the average amount of blue water for rainfed agriculture was estimated as 2788.85 m3 t-1, among which lentils and chickpeas had the higher blue water among the rainfed crops. According to the results, sub-watersheds 7 and 14 located in western parts of the study area had the highest of virtual water. In sub-watershed 7, a large part of its area is used for rangeland and only a small part is related to rainfed agriculture, and all area of sub-watershed 14 is used for rangeland. Therefore, the appropriate cultivation pattern can be determined based on the amount of virtual water and its spatial changes.

As the first social system, nomadic life has faced many challenges, including the need for drinking water, livestock, agriculture, and horticulture, despite their significant role in the country's economic, social, and cultural development. Low rainfall with inappropriate time and place distribution and increasing demand are the main problems in nomadic areas. On the other hand, water extraction is a method; which has been used for more than several thousand years to concentrate, collect and distribute water for various purposes. The purpose of this research is to introduce new and traditional methods of water extraction, suitable for summer and winter areas. The research method is descriptive-review and the tool for collecting information, documents and documents related to the subject. The collection of information continued until we reached the saturation stage in extracting the main research keywords and new and traditional methods of water extraction. The success of water extraction systems depends a lot on their environmental criteria and technical design. Therefore, each of the mentioned methods should be selected according to the climatic conditions of summer and winter areas and the technical design of the construction of each of the structures.

Any damage to watershed resources can have significant effects and consequences for stakeholders. In this regard; increasing pressure and tension on ecosystems and the crisis of water resources in the country is the result of laws, policies and lack of integrated management in watersheds rather than being caused by inhumane activities. In order to getting out from this bankruptcy, is necessary to correcting the thought of the former governance and the quality of governance health in the country watersheds. Therefore; in this research has been tried to investigate the unfavorable governance of water resources in the country, which has led to the destruction of capitals in the long term in a competition with short-term benefits; to change the views of officials, experts and stakeholders towards the proper watershed governance. The findings of the research indicate that this type of governance, unlike the current governance in the country, tries to improve the watershed's health by considering all the watershed's components and involving all the officials and stakeholders. In addition, under the pretext of providing and restoring a resource in the short term, it does not put other watershed resources under pressure and destruction in the long term. In this regard; is suggested to improve the watersheds health and getting out of the crises that have occurred in the watersheds; the governance of IWM should replace the unfavorable governance prevailing in the country.

The location of the unique ecological area of ​​Hamoon in the Sistan plain has given it a special environmental importance, and according to the Ramsar Convention, the Hamoon area as an international wetland has special ecological values ​​for the world. However, neglecting the ecological water requirement has led to some natural ecosystems being seriously damaged and at the same time turning into dust sources. The need to determine the minimum water requirement of aquatic ecosystems and the regulation of environmental flows has received global attention and is one of the important challenges of water management and wetland ecosystems. Available free satellite data can reveal long-term surface water changes, improve modeling, and inform changes for water management decision-making. Using of the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform has solved the need for speed in processing and access to various data. The use of the world surface water layer product (JRC Global Surface Water Mapping Layers), by providing the Transition band and Seasonality band which is the result of changes in water areas from 1983 to 2021, can provide a suitable base level. In order to calculate the water requirement, it should provide based areas with less time and cost. In this study, the base level of Hamoons was extracted using the mentioned product in Google Earth Engine and interpreted in ArcGIS software. Finally, the water requirement of Hamoons was calculated using the hydrological method.

In the Sistan region, located in the east of Iran, there are three main Hamoons named Pozak, Sabori and Hirmand. In order to estimate the water required for wetland restoration, using the hydrological water balance method, the water losses in one year will be compensated through precipitation and discharge. In order to estimate the pattern of wetting of the wetland area, the global surface water layer product was used in the Google Earth Engine environment.Considering that this product is derived from the changes of water zones between 1984 and 2019, it can be zoning the wetland based on the hydrological trend. First, the changes of the aqueous zone were investigated using the Transition band. Then the classes in this band were interpreted using the Seasonality band. The final map was created by merging the classes that followed the same behavior. In order to reveal the trend of the water body area of the wetland in different seasons, a number of plots were extracted from each class and the trend of the NDWI index was monitored over five years (from the beginning of 2016 to the end of 2020). Then, using the monthly long-term average (fifty years) of precipitation, evaporation and transpiration of the area, which was converted into the seasonal average, the water losses and the amount of discharge required for the stability of the water body of the wetland were estimated.

The " Permanent to Seasonal " and " Lost Permanent " classes were wet in the past and currently receive less water. Therefore, they can be first priority. At the same time, the "Seasonal" class shows the most presence of water during the year. As a result, it can be second priority. The first priority area is 993.7 square kilometers, the second priority area is 871.7 square kilometers, and the third priority area is 1370.6 square kilometers. Therefore, by merging the above-mentioned classes, the base level map for the estimation of Hamoon's water requirement was obtained. After calculating the median of NDWI index for each pixel, the 5-year trend was monitored for each zone (class of each priority). The monitoring of NDWI changes in each of the zones shows that the surface with the first priority in the period of April to August (spring and summer) and the surface with the second priority in the period of February to June (winter and spring) is wet. The surface with the third priority is often dry and in some years it is rarely wet in April (spring season). As a result, the water requirement of Hamoons with an area of ​​3237 square kilometers is equivalent to 3804 million cubic meters per year.

According to the results of this research, the water requirement of Hamoon is 3804.3 million cubic meters per year with a base area of  ​3237 square kilometers.

Using the pattern of the number of months of water presence in the wetland, which is extracted from the seasonality band, the eleven classes of the transition band were interpreted. As a result, it can be second priority. The results show that the pattern of long-term behavior of water in the Hamoon area indicates the absence of a permanent water surface in these ecosystems. Examining the trend of changes shows that the areas are wet in three seasons: spring, summer and winter. The results of this research, using the GEE product and the change of the trend of NDWI index, could help reveal the hydrological system and lead to a more realistic estimate of the ecosystem's water requirement. Perhaps the best advantage of this method compared to the traditional types of using satellite images, in addition to spending less time, is a more comprehensive view of the unique changes of each water zone compared to other zones. In fact, using the time series of images helps to plan for each water area according to its nature and will prevent prejudice and repetition of a fixed pattern. Estimating water requirement along with its seasonal distribution, can help managers and policy makers to demand the required amount of water and increase productivity by managing water distribution.

The response of water balance components as indicators of hydrological performance to stimuli such as land use change is of strategic importance. In this study, the effect of land use change on water balance components was evaluated, focusing on the relationships and change of the main indicators of water yield and sediment yield. Based on this, the Markov chain model was used to predict land use in 2040. Also, the American soil and water assessment tool was developed as a base model for evaluating and estimating hydrological indicators in the Taleghan Watershed as a mountainous watershed with structural heterogeneity. The results of model showed that the increase of settlements and urban development in Taleghan watershed will result in increased runoff, increased water yield and sediment yield indicators, and more sedimentation. Land use change leads to an increase of sediment yield by 11 times until 2040. The conversion of pastures to barren lands is the most important land use change that can increase sediment yield. Also, the increase of barren lands will be the reason for the reduction of evapotranspiration in some sub-basins of this watershed. Increasing rainfall and decreasing soil permeability will increase surface runoff, and as a result, soil erosion and sediment yield will increase. In this study, exactly the sub-basins that had the highest quantitative amount of predicted water yield index also had the highest quantitative amount of sediment yield index and increased sedimentation. In this research, it was determined that land use change as a type of structural change in the land will have visible effects on the functions and hydrological responses of the watershed.

Implementation of watershed management measures in Iran to reduce the damage caused by the misuse of natural resources has begun many years ago and is still ongoing. Evaluating the performance of previous remedial work is essential for better planning of future watershed management projects. In this regard, due to the monitoring of soil loss, runoff and sedimentation at slope and watershed scales, a suitable platform has been provided to assess the effects of watershed management measures.

The Kakhk paired watershed with an area of 217 ha is located at a distance of 300 km from Mashhad City and 35 km southwest of Gonabad City.The Kakhk paired watershed consists of two sub-watershds, the control and the treatment. A series of biological and structural watershed management measures have been implemented in the treatment sub-watershed. While the control sub-watershed is exploited according to the custom of the region. In this research, the impact of different watershed management measures on the soil loss, sediment yield and hydrology in the Kakhk paired watershed were evaluated. For this purpose, the recorded data of suspended sediment and discharge at the watershed scale, as well as the data of soil loss (by standard plots and erosion pins) and runoff (standard plots) were analyzed at the hillslope scale.

The results at plot scale showed that the average annual soil loss of the two treatment and control sub-watersheds is 0.05 and 0.27 ton.ha-1.y-1, respectively. These results indicate that the soil loss in the control sub-watershed is 536% higher than the treatment sub-watershed. The amount of runoff yield in the control sub-watershed was calculated to be 138% more than the treatment sub-watershed. At watershed scale, the results showed that the total amount of suspended sediment output from the control and treatment watersheds is 379 and 85 tons, respectively, which indicates the average specific sediment of 0.4 and 0.1 ton.ha-1 in the control and treatment watersheds, respectively. The volume of runoff in the control sub-watershed is 1.3 times more than treatment sub-watershed. On the other hand, despite the difference between the treatment and control sub-watersheds in soil loss, run-off production and sediment yield, the role of maximum events in soil erosion and runoff production in both sub-watersheds is very significant. So that one to three erosive events in both studied sub-watershes are responsible for more than 80% of the soil loss in the slopes and the production of runoff and sediment yield of watersheds.

The results showed that a total of 136,000 m3 of runoff storage and 294 ton of suspended sediment control were achieved as a result of watershed operations in the treatment sub-watershed. Therefore, it can be stated that the watershed management measures carried out in the treatment sub-watershed on the one hand have reduced soil erosion and runoff production on the slopes compared to the control sub-watershed. This action has been done through increasing the vegetation, increasing the roughness of the land surface, reducing the carrying capacity of the flow and settling the materials being transported. Further, the flow from the slopes enters the waterway and is kept by watershed  management structures, and as a result, the sediment yield and volume of runoff in the treatment sub-watershed is less than the control sub-watershed.