water use

The inappropriate utilization of water resources has led to water shortages and numerous challenges for humanity. Assessing water scarcity can significantly contribute to sustainable water resource management. The Water Poverty Index (WPI), as a composite tool, assesses the factors affecting the water condition in a specific area using five critical criteria: Resources, Access, Capacity, Use, and Environment. in the present study, Razavi Khorasan province was divided into 22 study areas, then the water poverty index was used to assess the water scarcity in each of them. WPI results revealed that the Darghz study area scored 50.63, indicating the best water condition, while the Kashmir study area, Red Mountain, and Khalilabad had the worst water conditions, scoring 20/20 compared to other regions. The average of WPI for the entire province was 34.41, indicating an unfavorable state of water scarcity in this region. The average values for the five criteria—resources, access, capacity, consumption, and environment—across the entire province were 19.41, 36.35, 31.23, 38.06, and 47.05, respectively, that according to Use and Resource criteria, water utilization in this province exceeds available water resources by a factor of 1.96. According to this, overexploitation of water resources, particularly in the agricultural sector, and neglecting sustainable development and resilience thresholds of natural ecosystems were identified as significant management strategic mistakes contributing to water scarcity in this province. Therefore, make a balance between water utilization and available resources, allocating a portion of water for the natural ecosystems requirements, and reducing economic reliance on agriculture, can serves as a roadmap for water resources management to effective water resource management and prevent further deterioration of the current situation.

Today, due to human activities, climate change, and other factors, wetlands within the country are rapidly diminishing. Wetlands are critical ecosystems that support a vast array of biodiversity and provide valuable goods and services. They offer numerous economic and environmental advantages, such as carbon sequestration, groundwater replenishment, flood mitigation, and resources for food and fodder. Globally, wetlands are subjected to intense degradation pressures, primarily due to human-induced changes. These include expanding agriculture, urban development, inter-basin water transfers, and destroying natural habitats. Additionally, alterations in wetland catchment areas, resulting from land use changes that affect various surface processes, typically modify the condition of wetlands. Consequently, this study aims to examine the transformation of the Salehiyeh wetland from 1987 to 2023 using Landsat satellite imagery and to explore the factors contributing to the area's degradation and desertification through documentary and field surveys.

Landsat 5 and 8 satellite images were utilized to study the changes in water bodies and saltlands in the Qazvin-Alborz region from 1988 to 2023. Following radiometric and atmospheric corrections, maps depicting the region's water bodies and vegetation cover were generated using ArcGIS Pro 2.8 and ArcGIS 10.8, respectively. These maps were derived using the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the years of study. Documentary research and survey methods also identified the primary factors influencing these changes.

The results indicated that the water abstraction area in the study area was approximately 8922.36,2844.02 and 1135.28 hectares in 1988, 1998, and 2009, respectively. This area decreased to 921.01, 409.38, and 167.54 hectares in 2019, 2022, and 2023, respectively. Correspondingly, the changes in the area's vegetation were consistent with the changes in its water. Before the construction of the drainage system, in 1988, 1998, and 2009, vegetation covered approximately 7196.56, 4293.62, and 2576.50 hectares, respectively. In the years following the construction of the drainage system, namely 2019, 2022, and 2023, the vegetation spanned 3337.12, 514.64, and 473.61 hectares, respectively. Investigations revealed that disruptions in the wetland's hydrological cycle due to the construction of dams on the main rivers, the development of drainage systems, communication lines, infrastructure, and the pressure of livestock grazing are the most significant factors affecting the current condition of the wetland. The results related to explaining the key drivers of desertification and land degradation in the Salehiyeh wetland and the saltland of the central Qazvin plain have shown the serious impact of human activities on the current state of the wetland. In the meantime, the loss of wetland rights due to the construction of Kinehwors Dam on the Abharroud River, the construction of a diversion dam on the Kordan River to Hashtgerd Plain recharge, and the construction of a diversion dam on the Ziyaran River played an important role in disrupting the hydrological cycle of the wetland. The implementation of construction projects in the wetland, including the construction of a drainage system, the construction of the Abyek-Charamshahr freeway, the establishment of Azadi Airport, and the development of agricultural lands, has contributed to the cause of a serious threat to the safety of the wetland's wildlife, its destruction, and its ecological and geographical isolation. Also, constructing the access road and overpasses to transfer water on the side and the drainage canal has provided more access to the herdsmen and hunters. It has increased the population of excess grazing animals in that area, especially camels.

Generally, the desertification and land degradation observed in the Salehiyeh wetland and the salt lands of the central Qazvin plain can be attributed to a neglect of sustainable land management principles. Additionally, climatic anomalies have exacerbated the destructive effects over the past two decades. Any measures aimed at correcting and enhancing the ecological condition of the wetland should prioritize controlling the primary sources of dust production. These measures should involve mitigating the impact of human activities as much as possible, regulating livestock grazing, restoring vegetation, and emphasizing organizational unity and the involvement of local communities.

Rural guide plans with the approach of reforming and improving infrastructure and the most important tool of rural development management, has a history of implementation for nearly three decades in the country. Currently, despite the efforts made, the problem of flooding and water shortage still remains in many villages of the country, including Fars province, where the guide plans has been implemented. In this research, the problems of guide plans from the perspective of watershed management have been investigated in two areas of flood management and watershed management. Spatial development of villages in the form of guide plans, regardless of the issues of flood management and aquifers, severely reduces the resilience of villages in two fields: floods and groundwater reduction. In order to increase the resilience of villages and a more comprehensive future study of guide plans, flood management (by maintaining waterways in the villages) and foresight regarding the implementation of watershed activities (by determining suitable lands) are suggested. The implementation of watershed management activities in the upstream of the agricultural lands around the villages) should be seen seriously in the guiding plans and in the direction of rural development and increasing the physical resilience of the villages. Paying attention to the watershed area upstream of the target villages, future research regarding water supply Sustainable agriculture with the strategy of watershed activities and rural flood management with the preservation of waterways and dry rivers in the area of the villages is necessary for this.

Water shortage is one of the main problems of most countries in the world, and the only way out of this crisis is optimal allocation and increasing water productivity in different sectors, especially the agricultural sector. In this research, the factors affecting the development of pressurized irrigation systems in the 46,000-hectare project of Sistan region were evaluated with the approach of multi-indicator criteria. To research this goal, the SAW model under fuzzy logic was used, and for this purpose, 5 main criteria (including economic, technical, promotion, social, environmental and individual criteria) and 31 sub-criteria were selected for 5 options in Sistan region. Data were analyzed using MCDM solver software. The results related to the definitive score of the options show that the economic option with a value of 5.175 is in the first rank, the technical option is in the second rank with a value of 4.711, the promotion criterion is in the third rank with a value of 4.583, and the social and environmental criterion with a value of 4.581 is located in fourth rank and the last rank belongs to individual characteristics with a value of 4.356. Considering the results obtained and the development of pressurized irrigation systems in the region, it is suggested to strengthen and target the granting of government facilities for pressurized irrigation systems. Also, technical indicators should be considered by planners in the region due to their high weight in the results.

Traditional methods of water supply and storage have been of interest to people in different regions especially desert areas since ancient times, so that they have become important and vital structures in these areas. In this study, some traditional methods of water supply and storage in Kerman province were investigated in the field. In this study, the study of the resources and research background in the world, the country and Kerman province, the convergence and exchange of information of the regions with experts in the field of natural resources and watershed management, the completion of questionnaires from experts and natives of the region, the use of data and resources from the water history of Kerman province located in the library of cultural heritage and Kermanology, field research, and the completion of questionnaires and visits, surveys, preparation of documentaries of films, photos and datawere discussed. Then, the defects and possible weaknesses of traditional water conservation methods were identified and ways to correct or eliminate them through the use of new techniques and facilities were discussed. The results of the research showed that the traditional methods of water conservation in Kerman province include dam structures, water storage pools, darband structure, keshband structure, aqueducts and water storage ditches in the heights, the most important and widely used of these methods in Kerman province are aqueducts and pools, and other structures are of secondary importance. The results of the research also showed that water storage pools in Kerman province for water storage and productivity are 3000 years old, including Hossein Abad Pool, Divooni Pool, which has also been registered as a cultural heritage.

Climatic characteristics such as dry and semi-arid climate, lack of rainfall, long periods of drought in the country, and lack of rains in the seasons when the agricultural sector needs water resources have caused the decrease of underground water resources every year more than the previous year. Even beyond that, it becomes a challenge for policymakers, decision-makers, operators, farmers, and industrial sector employers. The numerous types of research that have been conducted in the field of underground water resources in the Water Resources Research Quarterly between the years 2006 and 2022 show that the importance of this issue is not only in the discourse governing water policymakers but also among experts and academics. Therefore, the present research, based on a systematic review approach to the pathology of previous studies, deals with the subject of articles related to underground water resources in the Quarterly Journal of Water Resources Research and reveals the factors affecting it based on the accumulation of the mentioned research results. To fulfill this aim, several questions were asked: 1- What methods have been used in the studies related to underground water resources published in the Iranian Water Resources Research Quarterly? 2- To what extent have the methods of these articles been able to cover appropriate solutions to solve problems related to underground water resources?

The current study was conducted with a systematic review approach. First, in order to increase the accuracy of the research, a checklist of eligible articles was prepared during the years 2006-2022, which included components such as the research method, the number of authors, the year of conducting the research, and the tendency of the authors of the article.After reviewing the papers, 38 articles discussing underground water sources, both in the topic and in the content, were selected as a statistical sample. In this sense, almost all articles related to the topic of "groundwater resources" were reviewed.

The findings of the research showed that among the 38 papers in terms of the number of authors, the largest number of studies are related to the articles that had more than two authors (22 cases), followed by the ones with two authors (12 cases), and the articles that were done by one person allocated the lowest amount (4 cases). Regarding the disciplines of the authors of the articles, it should be said that most of the articles are by researchers in the fields of water resources engineering, water resources management, water and development, irrigation and drainage, and hydraulic structures (30 articles), researchers in the fields of mapping, rural development, water and development, and geography (4 articles), researchers in the fields of environment, watershed management (4 articles), and researchers in interdisciplinary fields such as archeology and sociology (2 articles) were ranked next in terms of the number of published articles. Regarding the years that have been published in the Quarterly Journal of Water Resources Research, it can be said that most of the studies were published in 2022 (8 articles), and the least number published in the field of groundwater resources is related to 2006, 2008, and 2015 (1 article). In terms of methodology, the largest number of articles is related to the articles that have investigated the state of water resources and aquifers with the method of scenario creation and future research (15 articles). This scenario development is either quantitative and numerical analysis or qualitative analysis and future research. The studies that have been done with numerical simulation, modelling, and factor modelling (11 articles) and analytical research (5 articles) have the largest number of articles after the studies related to scenario creation.

This research was carried out with the aim of methodological pathology of the articles related to the topic of underground water resources that were published in the Iranian Quarterly of Resources Research from 2006 to 2022 and was intended to answer these two questions: 1- What methods have been used in the studies related to underground water resources published in the Iranian Water Resources Research Quarterly? 2- To what extent have the methods of these articles been able to cover appropriate solutions to solve problems related to underground water resources? According to the findings, the authors suggested these ways: 1- Regulating the research in the field of underground water resources, 2- Allocating part of the articles to the discussion of methodology (even modelling and numerical articles), 3- Attempting to conduct studies in the field of social impact assessment (ETA) so that policymakers are aware of the consequences of the projects carried out, 4- Emphasizing innovation, using various qualitative methods (ethnographic and phenomenological methods), and paying more attention to the use of newer methods. 5- And most importantly, turning to sociological analyses related to underground water articles.

Water governance is a controversial concept, and rather than being based on knowledge of the governance method, it is considered an ideal model with specific and predefined indicators. Meanwhile, governance will result in the sustainability of water resources when it is defined and regulated according to the conditions. Because governance regulates the way of managing resources, it can vary according to the dominant discourse of each era. For this purpose, the present research tried to achieve a historical understanding of water governance patterns in different periods after the Islamic Revolution of Iran by using the methodology of discourse analysis and examining its effect on water resources management.

The method used in this research was discourse analysis. Based on this, the present study, with a historical approach, tried to discover the dominant discourse in every era and its effect on the way of managing water resources. The target period was from the 1978 revolution to the end of the twelfth government. In order to discover the dominant discourse, the text of the President's speech, the description of the deliberations of the Islamic Council, the text of water laws and development plans, and the approvals of the Supreme Water Council were examined. Therefore, in the results obtained, five decades after the revolution, the water governance period was divided into five periods, and political documents and texts and the description of the deliberations of the Islamic Council were used to evaluate it.

The results of the evaluation showed that what has determined the governance of water in Iran was not the governance that is proportional to the country's hydrological power but rather the governance that emerged from the political and international discourse. As in the periods when the ruling discourse was based on justice and the support of the government in economic matters (more emphasis on left-wing policies), the facilitation of water resource extraction, especially underground water, has intensified. During the periods when the ruling discourse was based on structural adjustment and privatization policies (with more emphasis on the right-wing economic liberalization policies), the development of surface water resources was the dominant model of water governance. Also, in many cases, there has been alignment between the government and the parliament in setting policies and laws against the sustainability of water resources. In cases where inequality has been evident, the government has sought to protect water resources in contrast to patterns that facilitate the extraction of resources.

The study of the history of water governance in Iran showed that in the dominant discourses on water governance after the revolution, the approach of protecting water resources along with the approach of self-sufficiency and development, which is still prominent in policymaking despite the worsening of the crisis, has not been able to lead the way. As far as we can say, the water protection policy has remained only as a slogan in many programs. It is based on this that the issues in water resources management policy have become chronic and are always repeated. This situation implies that water governance in Iran was not based on proportional governance, and as a result, the main goal of protecting water resources should be abandoned, and the improvement of the governance structure in accordance with the capacity of each region should be considered.

Effective management of rainwater through the development of integrated nature-based systems, both biotic and abiotic, is achievable. Utilizing rain gardens and permeable surfaces to capture and purify rainwater can help reduce pollution and enhance water resource efficiency. These systems are crucial in environmental conservation and balancing development with natural resource preservation. Nature-based solutions (NbS) such as rainwater harvesting, reducing surface runoff, enhancing evaporation, and improving stormwater quality contribute to better rainwater management. Diverse approaches and collaboration among stakeholders are fundamental to enhancing the efficiency of these systems. These solutions can effectively mitigate urbanization impacts, improve rainwater harvesting, and enhance urban resilience to climate change. Green roofs, as one of the primary NbS strategies in cities, promote environmental sustainability, enhance urban resilience, and reduce natural disaster risks. They are widely applied globally as a suitable technique for reducing runoff. Nevertheless, implementation challenges and high costs have limited the research and widespread adoption of NbS solutions. Additionally, a lack of information regarding green roofs is a major obstacle in this field. Policymakers can facilitate the adoption of green roofs by supporting and establishing appropriate legal frameworks. Understanding local conditions, lifecycle analysis, and cost considerations in each region is necessary for better comprehension. Technological advancements and efficient water management through NbS systems provide numerous benefits to urban ecosystems. There is a need for further research to understand the short-term and long-term positive impacts of these systems and to make better decisions. Implementing practical recommendations for these systems is of utmost importance.

This research aims to investigate the effect of flood spreading on the quantity and quality of groundwater in the Tokahour-Hashtbandi plain. For this purpose, first, SPI was calculated in time scales of 1 to 48 months for the existing rain gauge station in the region. The GRI index was calculated using the groundwater level data in the next step. Then, three wells with conventional names A1 to A3 were selected to evaluate quantitative changes. Five wells B1 to B5 were also selected for qualitative evaluation as they had the closest position to the flood spreading area. Then, using the Petit test, the time of the flood's impact on the quantitative and qualitative resources was determined. Also, by dividing the statistical period into two parts, the time before the impact of flood spreading and after the impact of flood spreading, using linear regression analysis, the slope of changes of GRI, EC, and SAR index for both times was done for the selected wells. In the next step, using correlation analysis and linear analysis, the effect of flood spreading on the sensitivity of groundwater resources to drought was evaluated. The results showed that the time of flood spreading effect on the level of three wells A1, A2, and A3 is 2009, 2009, and 2012, respectively, which is not statistically significant. Also, the time of flood spreading effect on EC values of wells B1, B2, B3, and B5 in 2007, 2009, 2013, and 2009 respectively, and on SAR values of well B1 in 2010 was determined. The results of the evaluation of the effect of flood spreading on the quantity of groundwater show the improvement of all three selected wells and the reduction of the slope of EC changes, but it did not have much effect on SAR. The results of the evaluation of the effect of flood spreading on the sensitivity of the groundwater quantity to drought showed that the flood spread has reduced the sensitivity of the GRI and EC index to drought in the selected wells, but it has not been able to reduce the sensitivity of SAR to drought.

Low rainfall with improper temporal and spatial distribution is a significant problem in arid and semi-arid areas. Due to the lack of water resources and the increasing water demand, access to new water resources is necessary. Rainwater collection is one of the most prominent methods of rainwater exploitation management to deal with water shortage which is developing rapidly in many areas. Considering the diversity and breadth of rainwater collection methods, serious attention should be paid in choosing the influencing factors and the type of criteria combination method. In this article, in order to determine the places prone to the construction of rain catchment surfaces for livestock drinking, first the effective factors were determined with the studies conducted and the characteristics of the area.Seven factors were considered, including slope, land use, soil depth, distance from fault and waterway, proximity to livestock farming, and prevailing wind direction.The factors were ranked using the fuzzy logic technique.This involved dividing them into nine separate parts. A geographic information system was then used to overlap these layers. The results of this overlap were classified into five classes: poor, average, relatively good, good, and very good.The rainwater collection areas for each class were 44.01, 53.94, 30.31, 30.48 and 12.51 km², respectively. Also,Based on the results of fuzzy logic, the south and southeast part of the region had the first priority for the construction of rain catchment surfaces.Therefore, it can be used to collect rainwater and store it for future use.The findings of this research work will help policy makers and decision makers to implement different rainwater collection structures in the study area to overcome water shortage problems

Rivers, as vital water resources, play an essential role in maintaining the health of the environment and living organisms. The rivers bordering the Caspian Sea are recognized as the most accessible surface water sources and, unfortunately, are often utilized as dumping grounds for pollutants. These rivers have a close connection with populated areas and economic activities, which is why the management issues related to them have significantly escalated. The quality of river water directly affects the health of humans and aquatic ecosystems. Pollution resulting from human activities, such as wastewater discharge, can lead to serious health and environmental problems. For example, research by Rostami and colleagues has demonstrated the negative impact of urban wastewater on the water quality of the Kanger River, which is also true for the Talaar River. These challenges necessitate multifaceted management and scientific approaches to develop protective strategies. Golamian and Yildirim's studies highlighted the impact of land-use changes on the intensity of floods and erosion, emphasizing the need for a detailed analysis of these changes. This research examines the damages inflicted on the Talaar River and provides a framework for analyzing similar hazards in other rivers across the country. The findings of this research underscore the necessity of collaboration among government agencies, local authorities, and civil society to create effective solutions for the sustainable management of water resources. By gaining a deep understanding of the existing challenges and adopting comprehensive management practices, we can help protect these valuable resources and improve the overall quality of public life.

The WRASTIC index is a systematic approach for assessing the susceptibility of watersheds to polluting surface water resources, based on key characteristics of the watershed and land use within a hydrogeological environment. This method became popular starting in 2000 and is considered one of the most comprehensive risk assessment methods for surface waters when compared to other techniques. In this approach, several factors within a watershed are meticulously evaluated to determine the sensitivity to surface water pollution, including wastewater discharge (W), effects of recreational land use (R), effects of agricultural land use (A), watershed size (S), transportation pathways (T), effects of industrial land use (I), and the extent of vegetation cover (C). The numerical values assigned to the aforementioned parameters in the WRASTIC model are used in equation to calculate the WRASTIC index value for a given watershed:
WRASTIC Index=WrWw+RrRw+ArAw+SrSw+TrTw+IrIw+CrCw
In this equation, the index (r) is used to assign scores to each parameter, while the index (w) represents the weight of the parameter. The values of (w) range from 1 to 4, and the values of (r) range from 1 to 5, with the industrial parameter being assigned a range of 1 to 8. According to the above equation, the higher the numerical value of this index, the greater the potential for pollution within the watershed. It is worth noting that for a better and more accurate assessment, the input of professionals should be utilized.

The results of the WRASTIC index assessment for the watershed of the Talaar River indicate a medium sensitivity to pollution, with a score of 5.26. This score raises concerns regarding the influx of urban and industrial wastewater, agricultural runoff, and the discharge of sewage from soakaway pits. These pollution sources pose a significant risk of severe contamination to the river, leading to consequences such as eutrophication and a decline in water quality. Furthermore, the increasing population in areas near water resources has led to land-use changes, resulting in a higher runoff coefficient and intensified flooding occurrences. These conditions may cause serious damage to infrastructures, natural ecosystems, and public health. Another weakness of the WRASTIC index is the neglect of the status of wildlife and natural habitats that are at risk, mainly due to deforestation and poaching. These issues not only threaten the biodiversity of the region but also adversely affect the ecological balance and water quality. Therefore, there is a clear need to establish a comprehensive and new framework for more accurately assessing pollution levels and maintaining ecological balance in this area. Making informed decisions and implementing proper management practices can improve water quality and contribute to the protection of the environment and biodiversity. The sustainable management and preservation of water resources and habitats require serious attention and collaboration from all stakeholders to make the best use of these sensitive and valuable ecosystems.

Crisis management and analysis of existing challenges require precise identification of damaging factors and the development of a comprehensive framework to explain the relationships between these factors. Such a framework can assist in classifying the damages incurred and improving risk management and crisis response. By examining and analyzing the damages from both temporal and spatial perspectives, a comprehensive crisis management approach can be realized. Thus, in the Talar River watershed, the presence of multiple challenges, including declining water quality, changes in hydrological regimes, alterations in adjacent land use, disregard for riverbed and buffer zone protections, illegal constructions, soil erosion, and excessive extraction of materials, necessitate the identification, management, and prioritization of existing issues to safeguard water quality and ensure environmental sustainability.

As a public belief, religion has always played a fundamental role in the development and strengthening of social institutions. Since the creation of mankind, religion has not only acted as a personal guide but also as a measure for regulating social behaviors and has played an important role in various areas, including natural resource management. One of the interesting patterns in the relationship between religion and nature is the connection formed based on the significance and sanctity of water in religious teachings. In this context, water is introduced as a symbol of purity, innocence, and spiritual health. According to this pattern, spiritual health, which refers to a deep connection to religious and divine values, plays a key role in regulating religious, civic, and individual relationships. Despite the great importance of this topic, few studies have investigated the role of religious beliefs in the consumption of natural resources, especially in Islamic societies. This shortage of research is largely due to the cultural and social challenges associated with studying such topics, avoided by many researchers. In reality, people’s religious beliefs and attitudes are often naturally inspired by nature and its resources, among which water is one of the most vital elements of nature, playing a crucial role in the survival and life of humanity. Islam, particularly in its Qur'anic teachings, repeatedly emphasizes the importance of water conservation and careful use. The Holy Qur'an refers to water as the source of life and stresses the need to care for this divine blessing. Alongside these teachings, religious beliefs have always played a central role in shaping people's attitudes and behaviors. One such belief, which is recognized as part of religious practice, is the concept of spiritual health, which refers to an individual's deep connection with religious teachings that can guide them toward more responsible use of natural resources, including water. This connection is not only evident in religious and ritualistic behaviors but also influences everyday life aspects, such as social interactions and the use of natural resources. However, fewer studies have specifically examined the relationship between spiritual health and optimal water use, particularly in Islamic societies. Cultural and social complexities associated with studying such topics have always posed challenges, leading to limited research in this field. Considering the role of water and its connection to religious beliefs and spiritual health, the present study seeks to investigate the relationship between religious attitudes, income levels, and water consumption in the community of Gorgan. This study aims to answer the question: Is there a relationship between individuals' religious attitudes and their water consumption? Additionally, the study explores the influence of other variables, such as gender, income level, family size, and employment status, on water consumption.

This descriptive-correlational study focuses on the urban population of Gorgan in 2021. A total of 100 individuals were selected from this population using simple random sampling. The samples were selected to ensure diversity in demographic, economic, and cultural characteristics. Standard and validated questionnaires were used as data collection tools, including a Religious Attitude Scale, a Spiritual Health Questionnaire, and a Financial Questionnaire. The Spiritual Health Questionnaire, by Polotzin and Ellison, consists of 20 questions designed to measure two dimensions: religious health and existential health. This questionnaire determines an individual's overall spiritual health score from 0 to 100. The second questionnaire assessed individuals' attitudes toward water consumption and their inclination toward water conservation. This questionnaire included 21 questions to evaluate cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and responsibility dimensions related to water consumption. The validity of these tools was confirmed through content validity, and their reliability was verified using Cronbach's alpha, with values of 0.82 for spiritual health and 0.94 for the water conservation attitude questionnaire. Data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software. Initially, descriptive statistics were employed to describe demographic variables and study indices (mean, standard deviation, and percentages). Then, inferential statistics, including Spearman's correlation coefficient and multivariate regression analysis, were used to examine the relationship between independent variables (spiritual health, gender, income, family size, and employment status) and the dependent variable (water consumption) at a significance level of 0.05. All ethical principles, including informed consent from participants and confidentiality of information, were observed in this study.

A significant positive relationship was observed between spiritual health and water consumption, meaning that individuals with higher spiritual health were more inclined to conserve water. Additionally, a significant relationship was observed between water consumption and age. Older individuals were more likely to conserve water than younger ones. Multivariate regression analysis showed that spiritual health and age were the two main predictors of water-saving behaviors. In other words, an increase in spiritual health and age was significantly associated with a greater tendency toward optimal water use. Other demographic variables, such as gender, income level, employment status, and family size, did not significantly affect water consumption. The results suggest that improving spiritual health can lead to better water consumption behaviors and a reduction in water waste. This impact is particularly noticeable among older individuals.

The findings of this study indicate that spiritual health, as an important and influential factor, plays a key role in improving water consumption behaviors. Strengthening spiritual health and religious beliefs in society, especially in arid and water-scarce regions, can serve as an effective strategy for addressing the water crisis and promoting the optimal use of natural resources. The findings also suggest that age is an important factor in reducing water consumption and encouraging conservation. Therefore, promoting and educating religious concepts related to natural resource conservation and protection, particularly through religious and educational institutions, can play a crucial role in changing water consumption patterns in society. Overall, the results of this study indicate that enhancing spiritual health through education and raising awareness can lead to reduced excessive water consumption and better protection of natural resources. This is especially important in communities facing water scarcity, requiring greater attention from policymakers and cultural and educational planners.

Soil is the basis of biological resources and life on the earth. Soil stability is one of the key indicators that it used to performance evaluation of soil structure against soil erosion. In fact, the aggregates stability indicates the resistance of the soil structure against external forces such as the raindrops impact and splash erosion. The raindrops energy is one of the main factors in the disintegration of soil aggregates in water erosion. The usage of different conditioners on the surface or inside soil is closely related to various processes such as surface sealing, infiltration, runoff, evaporation and finally soil erosion. Considering the importance of the aggregates stability soil erosion control, increasing the particles diameter on the soil surface can be one of the ways to prevent their movement and by erosive factors. The literatures review showed that the bentonite conditioner as a mineral conditioner can play the effective role in stability changes of aggregates, especially in degraded soils. Therefore, the purpose of present research is to the usage of bentonite conditioner on the changes of soil surface aggregates.

In the present research, the conditioner of bentonite mineral used in amounts of 30, 15 and 45% of soil surface coverage and in three replications. At the first, collected soil from rangeland land to depth of 20 cm transferred to laboratory and was exposed to air-dry and passed through sieve of 4-mm. Then the soil was poured into the splash cups and placed under rainfall simulator with a rainfall intensity of 90 mm h-1 and a duration of 10 min. Surface soil before and after application of rainfall simulator was collected with depth of 2-mm with amount of about 50 g of the surface of splash cups and the aggregates stability was calculated using the method of wet sieve. In the method of wet sieve, the remaining soil on each sieve was drained into marked containers using washing method and then and was put to rest for 24 h. After draining the excess water of samples, the remaining sediment was transferred the appropriate containers with specific weight. Finally dried for 24 h at oven with temperature of 105˚C. Finally, the application effect of the bentonite conditioner on the variables of aggregation and aggregates stability was calculated using SPSS software.

According to the conservation function and the average diameter of the soil aggregates using bentonite conditioner in three values of 15, 30 and 45 percent and based on diameter classes >500, 250-500, 125-250, 100-125, 100- 53, 38-53 and <38 micrometer, the results showed that the average diameter of soil aggregates significantly changed under the effect of bentonite conditioner. The average mass of the aggregates in the control treatment was with rates of 0.82, 1.88, 6.82, 3.37, 9.53, 4.62 and 20.36 g respectively, in the mentioned diameters, and with bentonite conditioner in the amount of 15% was with rates of 1.16, 2.63, 8.17, 4.46, 10.81, 4.02 and 17.68 g, respectively. Also, in the conditioner with the amount of 30%, this variable was the rates of 0.84, 2.42, 93. 7, 4.32, 11.03, 3.46 and 17.38 g and in the amount of 45% was the amounts of 0.81, 1.96, 6.95, 3.53, 10.01, 3.51 and 31 It was 19 g, respectively. The results of GLM test showed that the effect of bentonite conditioner on the variables D10, D10/ D90 and sorting was significant in level of 95% and on the variables D50, D90, D90- D10, D75- D25 and skewness was significant in level of 99%. But the bentonite effect was not significant on the variable D75/ D25 and kurtosis. Also, the results of Duncan test showed that the bentonite conditioner with rates of 15 and 30% had the better effects on the stability of soil aggregates and increasing the average aggregates diameter.

The obtained results from this research showed that bentonite conditioner can act as a protector against the raindrops and reducing soil erosion with creating adhesion on the soil surface. According to the results of the present research, it is suggested that the first, the more researches be conducted due to the soil conditions and natural rainfall and then the optimal values of bentonite be determined by erosion management and runoff.

Wind erosion contributes to climate change on both global and local scales, causing changes in biological, geological, and chemical cycles. Exerting adverse effects on the environment and human health, the phenomenon also brings about the loss of vegetation and the reduction in water resources. In this regard, carrying out biological recovery projects to be used as windbreaks is regarded as a highly effective method for combating wind erosion. However, due to the scarcity of water in desert areas, plant planting poses some serious threats to the implementation of the above-mentioned projects, requiring the observance of water management techniques. On the other hand, improper irrigation leads to the loss of large amounts of water through evaporation, causing stress in the irrigated plants. According to the predictions, the world will face a 40% water shortage by 2030. Thus, should the shortage continue to grow, many regions worldwide will experience severe water shortages or droughts in the near future. Located in the desert belt of the world and enclosed in relatively high mountain fences, Iran is threatened by the phenomenon of dryness in such a way that two-thirds of its area is now at risk of being caught by the phenomenon. The current research selected the Qom province (one of the 22 desert provinces in Iran) as its study area where high temperature and poor water quality have challenged the implementation of biological projects. Currently, the Iranian Organization of Forests, Pastures, and Watershed Management Common methods uses 30 liters of water every two weeks as its main irrigation method for the plants that grow in the province. Considering a treatment in which half of such amount of water (15 liters) is used for irrigation water, this study sought to assess the efficiency of the treatment on the Haloxylon ammodenderon plant.. 

Characterized by high-temperature rates in summer, low annual precipitation, hot winds during the dry season, dry cold in winter, and temperature fluctuations in different seasons, Qom province does not have a favorable climate due to its proximity to desert areas. In the traditional method of planting a seedling, a hole with a depth of 50 cm is dug, the plant is placed in the center of the pit, and the irrigation is done by surface method. This study investigated both 15-liter and 30-liter treatments made within two-week, three-week, and four-week irrigation intervals to compare the morphological indicators of the plant during the intended growth season (May to November). Moreover, variance analysis was conducted via SPSS statistical software to compare the variance between treatments and Duncan's test, seeking to identify potential differences between treatments (at a confidence level of 5%). On the other hand, the study used the Haloxylon ammodenderon as a halophyte plant with a wide vegetative range, considering the fact that the plant is indigenous to Qom province, characterized by its high resistance and adaptability in harsh conditions. It should be noted that while the average annual precipitation rate of the province is reported to range from 40 to 200 mm, the plant grows well and remains fresh. 

Thirteen physical and chemical characteristics of the study area’s soil were tested in five points. Accordingly, it was found that the region’s soil had a sandy clay loam texture with a salinity of 1.92 Decisiemens per meter and a pH of 7.19 with an average of 0.57% organic matter, 24.2% lime, 16.8% sulfate, and 0.2% gypsum. Moreover, solutes such as calcium, magnesium, carbonate, bicarbonate, and chlorine were found to be 13.6, 24, 0, 8.2, and 33.2 milliequivalents per liter, respectively. On the other, as Qom province suffers from low urban water quality, the study used the wastewater located near the study area. The results suggested that morphological characteristics such as height, trunk diameter, growth index, and canopy diameter significantly differed at the 5% level, while no significant difference was found in terms of root depth, aerial and root weight, and survival rate. As 90% of soil particles move within 30 cm of the ground surface, the shape of the canopy can effectively prevent their movement. As for the measurement of the canopy cover of the 30- and 15-liter treatments in two, three, and four weeks’ periods after irrigation, the results showed that the 30-liter treatment had better canopy dimensions, which exerted a significant influence on reducing wind speed, receiving more rainwater, and reducing runoff.The necessary water for the implementation of biological recovery projects in dry areas is provided through irrigation due to low and scattered rainfall. In Iran, water management is faced with challenges such as the shortage of water resources, environmental dryness, waste of water resources in the agricultural sector due to traditional irrigation, etc. The results of this study indicated that the 30-liter treatment performed better in terms of the plants’ height in all three irrigation intervals. Moreover, the treatment presented better results in terms of rooting when tested in the tree-weak interval, while no significant difference was found between the two treatments under a two-week irrigation interval. However, the 15-liter treatment had a greater rooting depth than the 30-liter one in four weeks of irrigation. As for the canopy diameter, aerial and root weight, and growth index, the 30-liter treatment revealed better performance. On the other hand, the percentage of survival in the 30-liter treatment was better in two-week and four-week irrigation periods than those of the 15-liter treatment, but the difference is very small. According to the comparison of the results of canopy dimensions and morphological characteristics, it can be concluded that the 30-liter treatment was definitely better. However, the results obtained for the 15-liter treatment can be acceptable in terms of reduction in irrigation costsFor this purpose, in two irrigation treatments of 30 and 15 liters of water on haloxylon ammodenderon plants, morphological plant characteristics such as height, root depth, collar diameter, aboveground and underground weight, growth index, and crown diameter were evaluated during a growing season (from may to October ) in irrigation intervals of 2, 3, and 4 weeks. The research results showed that, although the 30-liter treatment had better performance in all three irrigation intervals compared to the 15-liter treatment, there was no significant difference in some characteristics between them. Therefore, it can be concluded that considering the reduction in irrigation costs and water savings, the 15-liter treatment volume is acceptable and economically justified.

The environmental degradation model is an environmental impact assessment method that analyzes and quantitatively quantifies the effects of human activities and ecological changes on the environment. Regarding the importance of Sistan’s Chah-Nimeh in the region, this study aims to evaluate the degradation of the Chah-Nimeh of Sistan using the Makhdoum Ecological Demonstration Model (2002).  After dividing the Chah-Nimeh into 28 cells of 50 ha and separating the area of the Chah-Nimeh into three affected areas, including the educational and recreational complex of Baqiyatullah Azam, the agricultural lands of the city, the reproduction and cultivation center of fisheries, and the agricultural lands of Qale Nou, water sampling was performed from 12 points affecting water quality. Physical and chemical factors of water, including biological oxygen, chemical oxygen, total soluble solids, nitrate, nitrite, acidity, alkalinity, phosphate, electrical conductivity, and sulfate were measured as sources of destruction and effects on aquatic life. Physiological density was also obtained by dividing the villagers around the Chah-Nimeh to a radius of 2000 m in each working network on the extent of the land to be exploited in each area. The results obtained and data collection using aquaculture standards indicate that the total area of Chah-Nimeh is classified as an area requiring reconstruction. Accordingly, 21 networks covering 75% of the area have 5–14.99 degradation factors. In addition, seven networks are located in the northern part of the semi-well (affected area of agricultural lands of the city and the reproduction and cultivation center of fisheries), with 25% of the area in the range of 15–19.99 degradation, which requires priority reconstruction.

Soil erosion and sediment yield in the watershed lead to environmental issues. Therefore, knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of soil erosion is a proper strategy for planning and prioritize solutions for implementing soil conservation measures at watershed scale. Since biological methods are based on the prevailing conditions of ecosystems, soil erosion can be controlled in the initial stages. However, the biological management of soil erosion has yet to be accepted due to the lack of a suitable implementation model by executive operations. The current research aimed to inhibit soil erosion using biological management in the rangeland areas of the Kojour Watershed located in Mazandaran Province, Iran, due to the predominance of manageable distributed erosion.

For this purpose, the primary layers of elevation above mean sea level, slope, and geology were determined for the Kojour Watershed, and appropriate work units were accordingly delineated. Then, the soil erosion status was assessed on the basis of the scoring table of the seven factors of the BLM model. The study was confined to the rangeland areas based on field surveys, interpretation of satellite images, and expert opinions. In the next step, the leaf area index (LAI) map was prepared to compare field measurements and remote sensing information. Then, Ambrothermic and hytergraph charts were developed, and the corresponding Bio-Climatological map was prepared for the study watershed. Ultimately, suitable species were selected from the phytosociological list considering an appropriate combination strategy of Competitor (C), Stress-tolerators (S) and Ruderals (R), and species.

First, 15 land units were delineated for the entire Kojour Watershed, out of which six rangeland-dominant sub-watersheds were selected to designate the biological management measures for soil erosion control. The BLM table was employed for the rangeland work units showing that three of the six rangeland sub-watersheds were classified as low erosion. The remaining three sub-watersheds also had moderate erosion status. In addition, the general condition of soil erosion in the rangeland areas of the study watershed, with a score of 37.16, is classified as low status. Also, examining erosion maps and the obtained indices indicated a high agreement between field measurements and remote sensing data. According to the Ambrothermic chart, June to September were dry, and August was the driest month of the year in the study area. It also used the scope of significant environmental changes and more uniform regional changes. In this regard, the distribution of the area in the four Bio-Climatological classes of the Kojour Watershed is the same, and it is considered according to the planning and erosion management classes. In the following, the species were selected according to the combined CSR strategy, including Stachys inflata benth, Bromus tomentellus, Artemisia siberi, Trifolium pratense, and Festuca arundinacea with a broad presence in the region.

The present study was conducted to present a biological management model of the rangeland areas for the Kojour Watershed. The results indicated that soil erosion can be efficiently controlled through biological management methods in 40% of the rangeland areas. It is worth mentioning that it uses a model of biological management of erosion, which requires integrated and comprehensive investigations that consider different parts of the ecosystem.

Soil erosion, a significant form of land degradation, poses severe challenges to humanity in different ecosystems. It serves as a comprehensive index for evaluating the development and sustainability of land management programs. Assessing the status and spatial extent of soil erosion has become crucial in developing countries. Biological management, a recommended and effective means of controlling soil erosion in the early stages of all processes, offers a practical solution. Biological methods, such as minimum tillage operations and limited intervention in nature, prove to be more cost-effective and efficient than structural measures. Despite these advantages, biological measures have not received adequate attention in soil erosion control. This research addresses this gap by applying biological management in the Kilanbar Watershed (Kermanshah Province, Iran), demonstrating its effectiveness and cost-efficiency.

The layers of elevation from sea level, aspect, and slope steepness were prepared and combined in the geographic information system (GIS) software to prepare 38 land units. In the Kilanbar Watershed, 14 land units with the ability to perform biological management measures were extracted based on the expert and technical opinions of the watershed manager and considering different bases to improve the performance and decision-making of the units with an area of less than 300 ha. The Kilanbar Watershed is located in Ravansar City, west of Kermanshah Province. The study area is approximately 10798 ha. The highest and lowest elevation points of the watershed are 2183 and 1388 m above mean sea level, respectively. The mean annual precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity are 533 mm, 11.4 °C, and 45.1%, respectively. The status of soil erosion in each land unit was completed based on the scoring of the BLM form based on the visual and expert opinions, and a map of the erosion pattern was prepared in the land units. Ambrotropic and hyetographs were drawn using the 30-year precipitation and temperature data of the Ravansar synoptic station to determine the periods of drought and wet conditions and to identify suitable plants with the characteristics of the region. A climatic–agricultural map was prepared and integrated into the GIS using meteorological station data (temperature, precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration), and plant species were selected according to ecological expectations for watershed biological measures.

According to the BLM form results, one and eight land units are in partial and low erosion conditions, respectively, and five other land units are in medium erosion conditions. According to the erosion pattern map, the majority of the studied area, about 70% of the watershed, is in a low and medium erosion state, which naturally confirms the high ability to use appropriate biological measures to control soil erosion. According to ambrothermic and hyetograph measurements, June to September were dry months, and precipitation changes were more significant than temperature changes from October to May. According to the climatic–agricultural map, the region is divided into five classes. Class 4 (4819.3 ha) and Class 1 (364.83 ha) had the largest and smallest areas, respectively. Finally, the zoning of suitable rangeland species in the watershed showed that rangeland species of Asteragalus ascendes, Avena fatua, Picnomon sp., Achillea millefolium, Bromus tomentellus, and Hordum blubosum dominantly covered the region. Based on the study results, appropriate plant species were introduced for the studied watershed. Accordingly, conservation and reclamation measures were recommended to improve land productivity and ecological conditions and avoid land use changes for the study area. The essential measures include vegetation in rangeland ecosystems aiming at preventing the role of the canopy cover from directly impacting raindrops on the soil surface, increasing water infiltration in the soil, stabilizing soil aggregates due to roots extension, increasing grazing capacity and livestock production, and increasing its efficiency and productivity with time.

The findings of this study hold significant potential for the Kilanbar Watershed. The proposed biological erosion measures, tailored to the ecosystem's unique conditions, are effective, low-cost, and environmentally compatible. They offer a sustainable solution for managing soil and water resources in various ecosystems. Implementing these measures can significantly reduce soil erosion in the watershed, particularly in areas with low to moderate erosion status. This research is an essential initiative in applying biological erosion measures in the Kilanbar Watershed, demonstrating that soil erosion can be effectively and practically controlled in approximately 67% of the watershed through biological methods in the critical land-use areas of rangelands and agriculture. It is important to note that applying biological erosion measures requires comprehensive and integrated investigations, considering the different parts of the ecosystem. With these findings, the proposed approach in this research can be extended to other watersheds across the country, particularly those with slight to moderate erosion status, while maintaining the principle of comprehensiveness and respecting the unique conditions of each watershed.

The role of water in agricultural development and economic growth is undeniable. The imbalance between water supply and demand in Iran has created a challenge for the management of water resources, especially in agriculture. Paying serious attention to water productivity and improving it through appropriate methods and policies is one of the most effective solutions to address the water crisis and enhance the quantity and quality of agricultural production. The concept of water productivity is to produce the best and most products with the least amount of water. Agricultural water productivity has received serious attention in recent years from scientific societies related to irrigation and agriculture. The variation in water productivity for different crops at the local level and in comparison with other countries with similar climatic conditions indicates the potential for increasing agricultural water productivity. In the present research, the productivity of agricultural and horticultural products was investigated through field surveys, field measurements, and remote sensing analyses.

First, the status of water resources in the aquifer, including changes in groundwater levels and programmable water, was investigated. Then, the water consumption of agricultural plants was calculated using the difference between effective rainfall and plant water requirement (evaporation-transpiration). In the next step, the cultivated area of Basht Aquifer was examined using Sentinel-2 satellite images in Google Earth Engine software. Yield, dates of planting and harvesting, and irrigation times for agricultural products were verified through questionnaires completed by farmers and experts. After that, the water requirement of the current cultivation pattern was calculated using the FAO Penman-Monteith method. Finally, the productivity of different products was determined by evaluating the products in terms of productivity.

The area of the alluvial aquifer was 45.5 km², with an average length of about 25 km and a width of 5 km. The total volume of discharge and extraction from groundwater resources was 39.723 MCM. The infiltration amount of the Basht alluvial aquifer was calculated to be 7.905 MCM. By joining the outflow streams, including transfer streams through different elevations, the aquifer was recharged with a total of 20.377 MCM. Calculations using the FAO Penman-Monteith method showed that the water requirements of the dominant crops in the aquifer, including citrus fruits, wheat, barley, corn, canola, watermelon, rice, legumes, and alfalfa, were 9170, 5630, 4821, 7863, 5411, 9291, 20234, 5225, and 14083 m³, respectively. In total, the amount of water consumed by the agricultural products of Basht Aquifer was nearly 45 MCM, which was approximately equivalent to 1 m³m⁻² of the cultivated area. This is 2.64 times higher than the amount of water that can be programmed for agriculture (17 MCM).

The cultivation pattern will be influenced by parameters such as the climatic compatibility of products, the potentials of water and soil resources, regional needs, customs and interests of local people, and economic evaluation and income from production. Any change in the cultivation pattern should consider all social, economic, and environmental factors. However, given the existing conditions of the water sources, any cultivation pattern (even those considering high income) that increases discharge compared to the aquifer's recharge sources will be dangerous for future sustainability and will cause groundwater salinization and aquifer subsidence. Cultivation of high water-consumption plants such as seed corn should be stopped due to the severe water conditions of the region, and more investment should be made in developing crops such as canola, which are better adapted to the region's climate.