جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « تصویرسازی علمی » در نشریات گروه « هنر و معماری »

The knowledge of astronomy in the Middle Ages had two major trends: Astronomy and Astrology. Each one of these two trends has its own characteristics and concepts. Many books on Astronomy and Astrology have been written in Iran. Some of these books, such Suwar Al-Kawākib, Ajayeb Al-Makhluqat, Al-Tafhim, Daghayegh Al-Haghayegh, Al-Bolahan, Al-Mavalid, horoscopes, the Zijs, have been duplicated and illustrated in various periods. Illustration for astronomy, like other scientific fields, has always been the focus of writers and copy vectors to understand difficult topics and help the audience's memory to remember the content. The main question of this research is, what are the characteristics of illustrations of books in the field of astronomy and astrology in Iranian art? The researchers of this article have adopted a descriptive-analytical method and a comparative approach, to present a general view of illustration of astronomy and astrology in Iranian painting, and furthermore to explain the characteristics, differences and similarities, topics and also the methods of implementation of illustration of astronomy knowledge books. The analysis of the related works of art has been done keeping in mind the scientific rules of astronomy. The purpose of the research is to pay attention to the characteristics of illustration in astronomy, astrological books, and also, to compare the type of illustration for the mentioned fields. The results of the research show that the requirement of painters to comply with scientific standards in order to maintain the accuracy of astronomical materials has limited them in the type, style and quality of illustrations in this field, while there were no such strictures for illustrators of astrological books. Illustration of astronomy and astrology books is a combination of realism and fantasy. Astronomy images are often realistic and astrological images are more surrealistic. But the summary of all the differences between astronomy and astrology illustration can be summed up in the fact that the illustrator of astronomy texts is required to follow the rules so as not to damage the scientific accuracy of the text. While there are no such strictures for the illustrator of astrology texts.

The present article sees part of its mission in introducing a branch of illustration that is known today as a scientific illustration because the coexistence and association of science and art have long been part of the characteristics of the progress of any civilization. The Safavid era, as one of the pioneers of Iranian-Islamic civilization, has undoubtedly taken valuable steps in the field of scientific illustration. The Al-Hashayesh_the indelible mark of Pedanius Dioscorides, a famous Greek philosopher_is the major source of Botany, and Zoology in Islam. Many Islamic scholars and scientists have used Al-Hashayesh as a reliable reference book in their works. This book has been in the Islamic civilization, translation, and transcription. The most important is the translation of the book Pedanius Dioscorides for M. Ben Mansour In the sixth century and the governor of Diyarbakir in West Iran. Many historians in the field of science, especially medicine of the Islamic era, believe that the version of Astan Quds is one of the most important manuscripts translated by Mehran Ibn Mansour in Islamic civilization. The author considers the Astan Quds version as a direct or indirect source of reproduction of a number of other versions of Al-Hashish in Iran. Although a number of pages, including the translation of the book, have been lost, good information has been obtained by examining the Astan Quds version and later versions, all of which have benefited from Mehran Ibn Mansour's translation. In the Illustrated version of Astan Quds, some images committed to the version of the source are copied unchanged (and possibly the lack of visual dominance over the animal and plant samples) and some others are drawn according to the visual tastes of the artist. The author of this comparative study has gained historical images in the description and analysis of the results. The version of Mashhad has been provided in the west of Iran i.e. the east of the Islamic world, but after a few centuries, it was brought to the east of Iran and kept in Mashhad. It is not known when the copy of Mashhad was brought to Mashhad and who was responsible for transferring it, but from historical evidence, it can be inferred that the copy was transferred from western Iran to Mashhad during the Safavid period. The Safavids paid attention to medicine and medical content. It is obvious that the transfer of copies such as Al-Hashish Disqorides to the capital or other centers of their rule is obvious. The Al-Hashayesh  Ben Mansour bin Mehran Mehran did the Arabic translation of the Syriac liturgical edition by Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (260-194 AD), which was originally by Pedanius Dioscorides the physician, botanist, and pharmacologist Greek on foods and health and especially simple drugs, mineral, animal and especially plant. In this paper, we try to introduce this version of the exquisite analyzing imagery from the perspective of science and art and its impact on subsequent editions of the special edition of the Safavid era i.e. Al-Hashayesh House, Al-Hashayesh Golestan Palace, and Al-Hashayesh of Petersburg. The most influential translation of Dioscorides' book in Iran is the Al-Hashish version of Astan Quds by Mehran Ibn Mansour, this translation is the source of reproduction of many Al-Hashish versions in Islamic civilization. It seems that all the manuscripts and illustrations of the Safavid era, the version of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, Golestan Palace, and St. Petersburg, were written and illustrated from the copy of Astan Quds. The symmetry along with the coherent structure of the drawings indicates the precise underlying geometry in the illustration of the marginal version. The composition of the works changes as a result of the change in the subject, scope, and structure of the painting, and the guidelines are often arranged in such a way that a monoclonal system, sometimes based on radial lines and rhombus shape, is displayed on the page as a single plan. Reproduction of the Majlis version was done in the 10th and 11th centuries, probably in the period of Shah Tahmasb I; the Golestan Palace version in the 11th century, the period of Shah Abbas I; and the St. Petersburg version in the late 11t century, the period of Shah Abbas II; It seems that the version of Astan Quds, as the oldest version of Mehran's translation, is the source of all the copies of the Safavid era. An unrestricted copy of the remaining pages of the Majlis version of the Astan Quds version confirms this claim. There are only 18 pages of the parliamentary version. Historical and typological studies along with formal similarities prove this hypothesis. The illustrator of the Majlis version considers his commitment to be an exact copy of the Astan Quds version and has taken a similar path to his predecessors; however, the skill in designing and using complex colors is one of the hallmarks of the Majlis al-Hashish version of the illustrator. Based on the documents and review of the images, the version of Golestan Palace has been written and illustrated from the version of Astan Quds. The author of the Al-Hashaish version has copied the text of the Astan Quds version directly. From the endowment letter of the Mashhad version, it is understood that the Mashhad version was transferred to the Safavid capital during the reign of Shah Tahmasb I and Shah Abbas Safavid dedicated it to the "Holy Astan of Razavi" in (1017 AH) and therefore noticed the reward of this endowment. Mohammad Baqir Al-Hafez, the scribe of the Golestan Palace version, has even been careful in transferring the blanks of the text of the Astan Quds version to the Golestan Palace version. The illustrator of the Golestan Palace version, while committing to the scientific text and illustrations of the Astan Quds version, in many cases has shown his creativity and skill in recreating the surrounding environment and has made small changes. Delicacy and diligence in designing and paying more attention to the parts mentioned in the scientific text, since it has used all visual facilities to attract the audience's attention, indicates the illustrator's familiarity with the text. Various compositions and proper arrangements, such as the acacia tree, have led to the production of lavish versions of al-Hashish in the Safavid era. The presence of Astan Quds’ copy when the copy of Golestan Palace was provided in Mashhad and also the fall of some pages of Astan-e-Quds copy along with its antiquity are other reasons for concluding that the source of reproduction of Golestan Palace copy is Astan-e-Quds’ copy. The St. Petersburg version was provided shortly after the Golestan Palace version. The method of execution and forms in this version bears a remarkable resemblance to the Isfahan School of Safavid Art. The artist of the St. Petersburg version, while being greatly influenced by the Astan Quds and Golestan Palace versions, does not show much devotion to the scientific text. Taking a different path from his predecessors, he mostly represents the human aesthetic taste of the Safavid era. The decorative look and uniform compositions show the obvious formal differences between the version of St. Petersburg and the version of Golestan Palace and indicate the difference in the principles of scientific illustration of the two schools of Isfahan and Mashhad in the Safavid era. In the end, based on Table 3, it can be concluded that the passage of time has caused obvious differences in the reproduction of the Safavid versions from the original versions. As illustrators have gradually made little changes to some of the examples, they have ultimately distanced themselves from the basic tenets of scientific illustration. However, the Majlis version (10th century) in the surviving examples bears the most formal resemblance to the Astan Quds version (6th and 7th centuries). These similarities are diminished in the version of Golestan Palace (11th  century) and finally reach their minimum in the version of St. Petersburg (12th century) and give way to decorations that have little to do with the scientific text.

During the period of the Abbasid caliphs, the Islamic world became a center of knowledge, research and intellectualism and the city of Baghdad reached its peak of prosperity. In addition to inviting scholars to Baghdad, manuscripts were collected and translated from Syriac, Greek and Pahlavi to Arabic. These actions led to the migration of scientists from around the world to Baghdad and the boom in education and research which is also known as the translation movement. What is visible in the early Islamic centuries is the growth of scientific imagery, which can be attributed to Muslims' interest in scientific literature. In "Scientific Imaging", the artist, while partially referring to the scientific text, also has a look at the formal appeal of the book to encourage the enthusiasm of the reader to study. Nowadays, with the expression "illustration" all audiences pay attention to the visualization of the pages of the book, because with the development of bibliography over the past millennium, the art of visualization has become more relevant to the context of books. Illustrations of handmade paper books largely reflect the fact that illustrators have tried to exploit this technique, while narrating various events of their day and expressing religious beliefs, historical events, as well as illuminating some theoretical and practical sciences and literary texts. Dioscorides, a Greek physician, pharmacist, and botanist who lived in the first century, arranged all his personal experiences on the medical properties of flowers and herbs in different areas. The illustrations of his Book of Materia Medica that became known as "al-Hashish", have been traceable to Europe since the sixth century. The first translation from the book was made by Hainan bin Isaac from Syriac in 250 AH. Hainan bin Isaac entrusted the translation into Arabic to one of his students, Asfat bin Basil. However, Stefan ibn Basil translated it directly from Greek into Arabic, and revised and corrected the translation as Hennan ibn Isaac realized his mistakes. Stefan was one of the first and most accomplished translators of Greek medical texts into Arabic in the third century AH/ 9th century AD. He replaced the Greek medicinal names that he knew with their Arabic equivalents, but brought the unknown names in the original Arabic text. One of the aims of this definitive research is to investigate the branch of imaging known as scientific imaging. The aim is to study and compare the images of herbal remedies (expensive preserved versions of Astan Quds treasures) with the actual images of these plants. Most of these names were translated and interpreted into Arabic a century later in Andalusia by a monk named Nicolas, who was sent by the Byzantine emperor to the court of Abdul Rahman Nasser and was knowledgeable in both Greek and Latin. The so-called stylized translation is undoubtedly the most important translation of the book of Dioscorides into Arabic. Another important translation, namely the source translation of the manuscript of al-Hashayash al-Mashhad (Astan Quds), was done by Mehran ibn Mansur ibn Mehran, who knew both Syriac and Arabic languages ​​well, and used the Syriac translation of the book done by Hinnah ibn Ishaq, and translated it into Diyarbekir during the reign of King Najmuddin around 550 AH. The general title of the “Abbasid School”, that continued for five centuries, is bestowed upon various ways of illustrating books in the cities of Baghdad, Mosul, Kufa and Wasit; most of which were influenced by Sasanian and Byzantine art. It is characteristic of the paintings of this period that the outlines and shapes of animals and larger individuals were drawn, and the organs delineated in a simple manner with little or no depiction of background. The colors are few, but coordinate, very precise and subtle. The faces belong to the Sami (Arab) race, but they also have a significant influence on Byzantine and Eastern Roman artists.  The main questions of the study are: 1- To what extent are the images depicted in the transcript of Astan Quds Razavi's version close to the objective reality? 2- What is the relationship between text (visual description of plant) and visualization in the transcript? This descriptive-analytical study is based on library research and references to objective images of medicinal plants. The authors have achieved research results through a comparative study of the manuscripts along with the historical description and analysis of the images. The research shows that the illustrator of the Astana Quds Razavi’s version of the extravaganza depicts unfamiliar plants, imitating the nature of plants, or imitating the work of ancestors, without modeling on nature.

Safavid is considered one of the most important historical periods in Iran. In this era, extensive developments were made due to civilization knowledge maturity. With the arrival of Shah Abbas, Safavid experienced the peak of its power. The art were supported and strengthen due to the persistence of cultural and religious aspects and longlife of Safavid and the wonderfull support of artists by the court.
During the reign of Qarchoghaykhan and his descendants (in Shah Abbas era), Mashhad witnessed remarkable advances in the fields of politics, culture and arts. Manuchehrkhan and his son, Qarchoghaykhan II, were prominent supporters of the written arts in Mashhad in the eleventh century AH.
Effective role Pedanius Dioscorides (Greek philosopher), author of Alhshaysh in the history of botany and zoology numerous translations of his books in the Islamic world and Islamic grounds followed by multiple copies of this book at the time. In most works, the images relevant scientific text accompanying them. Artists of different ages imaging in addition to text and images before his commitment period represent their aesthetic tastes had somewhat.
Materia medical attention Safavid old man and advances in the field of imaging to provide a copy of the court Alhshaysh = Manuchehrkhan's Golestan Palace.
Manuchehrkhan's Alhashayesh edition with 833 colorful papers is one of irreplaceable and priceless scientific illustration books in the Safavid era. It was completed on the evening of the third Friday of Ramadan in 1038 AH with request and support of Manuchehrkhan, the governor of Mashhad. Now it is kept in Golestan Palace Museum. Copying the book was done by Mohammad Al-Hafiz, an accomplished calligrapher of the time. None of the images in this edition has no a signature except for one, Soorat Alkasfarah (page195 of the book), which is signed by: "Malek Hussein Isfahani."
Furthermore the history of medicine in Iran and the Islamic World and then in Safavid era, and the influential role of the book Alhashayesh and its author, Dioscorides, on plant science and zoology of Islam is described. Alhshaysh artist in the image of some plants rely on their subjective perceptions and the reality of the world is avoided. Illustration edition of Golestan Palace, even those who are unaware of the text of the book or are not able to read them, the book is absorbed. Those interested can with a little, Safavid art in scientific images version of Alhshaysh through the Golestan Palace, in clear view. This version also allows collocation of Safavid art schools as well as the past. The author selects some examples of the Golestan Palace Alhshaysh edition and examines the relationship of images with the scientific edition and similar samples in other editions of Alhashayesh. The use of comparative and historical review as well as scientific and technicall analysis of some images is a feature of this research. Finally, the author concludes that the Astan Quds Alhshaysh edition is the copying source for all editions of the Safavid Alhashayesh including the Golestan Palace Alhshaysh edition .

Alhashaysh is a perdurable opus written by the Greek famous medicine man, and one the main resources of zoology and phytology. Most Islamic scientists and medicine men exploited this book of interest as a reliable resource in their publications. The book has been frequently translated and copied in the Islamic civilization. The most important translation was that by M. Ben Mansour, the governor of Diyarbakir of Iran West in the sixth century. Alhshaysh version of Astan Quds Razavi has been written in a clear artistic style and contains the title of contents, the name of different plants with 680 colorful images and 284 images of animals in dry lands as well as the marine ones whose name is seldom written in syriac language. This book consists of 272 pages having 19 lines, and 25 codices (tables of contents). The book is totally 285 pages with 46 cm length and width of 29 cm. as the last few pages has been lost, it was not clear if the name of author, depicter and the date and place of publication were even mentioned. The book is kept under the number of 7059 in Astan Quds Razavi museum. Successive coping of the book led to a unique existence of styles and various schools of arts in depiction of final version of Alhashaysh of Razavi Quds Astan by Mehran Ben Mansour. Depicter of the version of Astan Quds has copied some images, due to his commitment to the resource version or probable lack of visual dominance over the animal and plant samples, unchanged and based on visual styles and perception of the artist. The author obtained the results through the comparative study versions as well as the description and analysis historical images.

With the advent of ShāhAbbās، the Safavid dynasty enjoyed its pinnacle of power. In this era، thanks to the endurance of cultural traditions and long reign of the Safavids، and also the extraordinary patronage of artists by the court، the strengthening and establishing of art became realized. ShāhAbbās’ accession to the throne caused significant political change and as a result، many traditional players of the Safavid court lost their grip on power. These changes in politics provided a chance for other layers of society، including slaves (qolāms)، to occupy crucial offices in ShāhAbbās’ royal government، relying on their personal merits. The promotion of the slaves’ political status، it seems، has been a positive factor in their increasing contribution to the art and culture. By early 11th century (17th century A. D)، the slaves، some of them favorited by the Safavid sovereigns and trained under the title of “the especial slave (qolāmkhāsseh)” within the court، had joined the royal library and art workshops as painters and calligraphers، and some of them even became the guardians and collectors of famous manuscripts and other exquisite items. Very soon، as the guardians of visual arts، they were entrenched in the rivalry with the Qezelbāshs and participated in the process of composing and formulating a new pictorial language which reached its prime in the 11th century. Some of these slaves provided great patronage for the visual arts. QarchaqāiKhān، an Armenian slave، and his descendents were distinguished patrons of art who ruled over the city of Mashhad from 1026 to 1076 consecutively. The few but otherwise extremely important works of this family were mostly recognized in the setting of the capital، i. e. Isfahan. However، literary and artistic evidence both show that one can relate the creation of these manuscripts to the city of Mashhad. During the reign of Qarchaqāikhān and his descendents، Mashhad experienced considerable progress in the fields of politics، culture and the art، and Manuchehrkhān and his son، Qarchaqāi Khan II، were significant patrons of the visual arts in the 11th century city of Mashhad. Manuchehr khan’s al-Hashayesh (the Herbs) manuscript with 833 colored illustrations is one of the most invaluable pictorial books of science in the Safavid era، finished on Friday، 3rd of Ramadhān of 1038 by the order and patronage of Manuchehrkhān، then governor of Mashhad. The transcription was done by Mohammad-Bāqer al-Hāfez، the celebrated calligrapher of the day; and with the exception of one painting، sorat-al-kasfara (p 195) signed at the bottom as “the work of MalekHusein of Isfahan”، all the other illustrations lack a signature. In the first part of this essay، we shall have a historical review of Qarchaqāikhān and his descendants’ era، and in the next part، their patronage of the visual arts produced in the city of Mashhad، al-Hashayesh manuscript in particular، will be the focus of our survey.