One of the damaging agents for wheat is the cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae). Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPR) are a group of bacteria that have beneficial properties for plant growth, including iron chelation, siderophore production, phosphate dissolution, nitrogen fixation, as well as the production of protease and chitinase enzymes. These bacteria can also be used as biological control agents. In this study, wheat roots showing suspicious symptoms of cereal cyst nematode were collected from the Dezful county in Khuzestan province during 2022-2023.  After initial investigations, nematode identification and purification was done. According to the morphometric and morphological characteristics of the larvae and cysts, especially its cone top, H. avenae was diagnosed. the effect of seven native growth-stimulating bacterial strains on egg hatching rate and mortality of cereal cyst nematode larvae in the Petri dish was investigated in the laboratory. The effect of four selected bacterial strains with sulfur treatment and Nematex EC nematicide was investigated in the greenhouse against grain cyst nematode. The results showed that in laboratory conditions, the bacterial strains were able to reduce the egg hatching rate by 62% on average. Bacillus pumilus bacteria caused the greatest decrease in egg hatching by 73%. The percentage of mortality of larvae in the laboratory test was also shown to be 63% on average, and the treatment of B. pumilus bacteria showed the highest percentage of mortality with 70%. The results of the greenhouse investigations showed that the treatments involving sulfur-healthy plants, sulfur-nematode, and the B. pumilus and P. fluorescens bacteria were most effective in promoting healthy plant growth and controlling nematode infestation. These treatments resulted in significant improvements in plant height, as well as fresh and dry plant and root weights. Additionally, the greatest reduction in the number of cysts was observed in the B. pumilus treatment, with an average of 49 ± 1 cysts. When examining the number of eggs within the cysts, the most substantial decrease was observed in the Nematex EC and B. pumilus bacteria treatments, with 67 ± 1 and 111 ± 2 eggs, respectively. Furthermore, in the assessment of the number of live larvae in the pot, the greatest decrease in the number of larvae was observed in the Nematex treatment, with 87 ± 1..

The cereal cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi has obligatory diapause stage in life cycle. For this purpose, the effect of different thermal treatments viz. 5, 10, 15, 5+15, 20 and 25°C were tested on the number of egg hatching of H. filipjevi for 12 weeks. The highest hatching rate was observed at 5+15°C with 87.8% whilst the treatment 25°C showed the lowest hatching rate of 1.1%. The treatments 5°C and 5+15 °C with highest hatching rates respectively showed significantly increasing of hatching between the sixth and seventh weeks followed by decreasing from the eighth week. Therefore, a pre-hatching incubation temperature at 5°C for six weeks is required to breaking diapause in Iranian population of H. filipjevi to occur the highest hatching rate at 15°C and by increasing the temperature the hatching rate is decreased.

Wheat Triticum aestivum L., is one of the most important and strategic crops in the world. Bread wheat (2n = 6x = 42), belonging to the family Poaceae, which is considered the most diverse and important family of the plant kingdom, produces large edible grains and provides about one-half of humans’ food calories(Wang et al., 2017). A number of pests and diseases attack wheat, out of which nematodes have been considered universally as one of the important microscopic organisms (ref). The Cereal Cyst Nematodes (CCN: Heterodera spp.) have a global distribution and cause significant economic yield losses in many countries of the world (Pariyar et al., 2016). It is known as the first and most important cereal crop in the world and widely consumed by 75 % of world populations (Drikvand et al., 2013).Cereal cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi has wider distribution, than other species in cereal fields in Iran. In this study, the reaction of 30 wheat cultivars against cyst nematode were evaluated in statistical design in greenhouse and the field. These cultivars planted in growing seasons (2015/2016) in a H. filipjevi-infested field in Agricultural Research Station, Central Kabotrabad area of Isfahan (30°42′ and 34°30′ N latitude and 49°36′ and 55°32′ E longitude), in a completely randomized block design, with three replications, each of which in a four rows of three meter length and 20cm distance.The cereal cyst species were identified based on morphological, morphometric features and molecular characters. The number of cysts, second stage juveniles and eggs were analyzed. Also, reproductive factor and percentage reduction and or increase in cereal cyst nematode population in each treatment were calculated into its initial population. Statistical and clustered analysis data were carried out on by Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT), SAS and SPSS statistical softwares, respectively. The results showed that, in the greenhouse, the lowest brown cyst was in Behrang cultivar with an average of 15 cysts and then Bam cultivar with an average of 15.25 in 200 cc of soil.The lowest number of CCN eggs and second stage juveniles and reproductive factor were of Pyshtaz cultivar with the average of 0.49 per gram of soil. The, cultivars were classified into three ranges of resistant, tolerant and susceptible. In field conditions, the lowest brown cyst was of Bam cultivar with 113.33 per 200 cc of soil. Whereas the lowest numbers of CCN eggs and second stage juveniles and reproductive factors were in Parsi cultivar with 0.69 per gram of soil, fallowed by Aflak cultivar with 1.69 in two different statistically groups. Also, cluster analysis classified the cultivars into three different categories, which also showed remarkable similarities to Duncan's test results. Currently, the resistant and tolerant wheat cultivars to cyst nematode is widely used in many European countries such as the UK, Denmark, France, Sweden and Australia. Row. Therefore, identifying and recognizing resistant genes in the cultivars under study provides a way for the production of resistant transgenic commercial wheat varieties. From our results, we confirmed that wheat accessions Behrang and Bam possess resistance and can subsequently be crossed with high yielding cultivars improving their genetic resistance to CCNs. There is a deal of potential for this study to develop new resistant varieties to H. filipjevi which will have a great value to the agriculture sector in Iran. These resistant cultivars can be used in crop nematode management program and tracking and transferring resistance genes to desirable crop cultivars. Also, in addition to number of cysts, the number of larvae took into screening programs for better susceptibility assessment justifications. It is suggested that Marker-assisted selection will further improve the development of resistant cultivars. Isolation of candidate genes associated with specific markers will greatly facilitate this process. Finding new sources of resistance would be very much demanded to control the different populations especially in areas, where a mixture of Heterodera species occurs. Therefore, wheat origin countries including Iran, Iraq, Syrian and Turkey obtained wild wheat relatives, which is to be screened to the main Heterodera species. Taking advantage of these sources of resistance is necessary to know the reaction of genotypes against CCN species for new resistant gene/s in Iran.

Cereal Cyst nematode is one of the most important damaging nematodes of wheat and barley in the world. Cereal cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi has wider distribution in cereal fields in the country. In this study, the effect of mentioned nematode was evaluated on 13 wheat rainfed cultivars and root micro-morphological in greenhouse and field condition. H. filipjevi were identified based on morphometric and molecular characters. The number of cysts, second stage juveniles (J2) and eggs, reproductive factors and anatomical aspects of the root were analyzed. The results indicated that at greenhouse conditions, the lowest milky cyst was related to Zagros cultivar with 1.75 number and the lowest number of cereal cyst nematode eggs and larvae and reproductive factors were related to the Kohdasht cultivar with 1.32 and 0.26 number per gram of soil. Obtained results classified cultivars in two ranges of resistant and sensitive to cyst nematode. In the field, the lowest number of cyst was related to Zagros with 185.33 per 200 g of soil. The lowest number of CCN eggs and larvae and reproductive factors were related to Kohdasht with 3.76 and 0.68 per g of soil. Root components studies, the highest thickness of cuticle, periderm and parenchyma was observed for the Rasad, Karim and Rasad cultivars with an average of 12, 33 and 41.33 micrometers and the lowest was recorded for Karim, Rizhav and Aftab with an average of 6.67, 19.33 and 23 μm, respectively. Cluster analysis was also divided the studied cultivars in two different categories, which this results had a remarkable similarities with Duncan's test results.

 Cereal cyst nematodes (CCNs) are acknowledged globally as a biotic constraint for wheat production, particularly under rain-fed conditions and drought stress. Among species of CCNs, Heterodear filipjevi is the dominant species in most cereal growing areas of Iran and is widespread in different regions of the country. The use of resistant wheat cultivars is considered the most effective and economical method for managing cereal cyst nematodes. The effectiveness of resistance to CCNs depends on the efficiency and durability of the sources of resistance, and on the correct identification of the nematode species and pathotype(s) present in each region. The objective of this study was to assess the reaction of common accessions of bread wheat to H. filipjevi under greenhouse conditions. The reaction of common accessions of bread wheat, including some cultivars and lines (20 accessions) to H. filipjevi was assessed according to used method for screening of wheat accessions under controlled conditions. Single wheat seeds were planted in standard small tubes. After plant emergence, tubes were inoculated with 300 freshly hatched J2 in 3 holes around the stem base. Experimental units were arranged in a randomized complete block design with 5 replicates. Plants were harvested 8 weeks after juvenile inoculation. Extracted Cysts from both root and soil counted under a stereomicroscope. The data were analyzed and the genotypes were divided into different groups based on their reactions. The results showed that Back-cross Rowshan cultivar with mean 30.2 and Silverstar cultivar with mean 6.8 had the most and the least number of cysts in soil and root of each plant, respectively. Cluster analysis divided all accessions into 4 groups. Back-cross Rowshan, Pishtaz and Pishgam cultivars were identified as highly susceptible according to higher mean of the cyst number in soil and root, in comparison to Bezostaya cultivar (Susceptible check). Mahdavi, Bam, Dena, Bahar, Sivand, Ofogh, Arg and Bezostaya cultivars were categorized as susceptible. Rowshan, Alvand, Parsi, Es-93-95 and Marvdasht accessions were grouped as moderately susceptible, and, Sirvan, M-90-9, M-90-7 and Silverstar (Moderately resistant check) accessions were identified as moderately resistant. This study revealed that Back-cross Rowshan, Pishtaz and Pishgam are highly susceptible cultivars to H. filipjevi. However, the cultivation of these wheat cultivars is common in the country. In order to impeding the damage of this nematode, it is essential to avoid cultivating these cultivars and other susceptible cultivars in infested fields to H. filipjevi.

Cereal cyst nematodes (CCN), Heterodera species, are important parasitic nematodes of cereal. Potato cyst nematodes (PCN), Globodera species, are also serious pests of potato world-wide. Continuous monitoring of these nematodes is necessary to prevent their damage to their host plants. This study was conducted to determine the distribution and density of these nematodes in Ardabil province, northwest of Iran, where potatoes are planted in rotation with cereals.

One hundred and two soil samples were collected from potato fields in the suburbs of Ardebil, Nair and Namin cities in the first year, and 116 soil samples were collected from the wheat fields that were cultivated in the rotation with potato in the second year. The samples were transferred to the laboratory and examined for cyst nematodes. After isolating the cysts, identification of the species was performed based on morphological and morphometrical characteristics of the cysts and the second stage larvae.

Examination of the collected samples in both of two years indicated the presence of CCN in some soil samples, but PCN were not observed in none of the soil samples. The morphological and morphometrical data of isolated cereal cysts and comparison with valid identification keys led to the identification of Heterodera filipjevi. Mean numbers of the cysts with eggs and larvae in those samples that were collected in the first and second year were respectively 0.76 and 0.11 in 100 g of the soil. Wheat fields of Ardebil had the highest and fields of Nair had the least number of cyst nematode.  

The results of this study showed that some of the wheat fields in the province were infected with H. filipjevi and potato fields were not infected with any cyst nematode.

The effects of salicylic acid (SA) nano-formulation on expression of peroxidase (113-114) genes and peroxidase and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) were investigated in wheat cultivar (Bezostaya) susceptible to Heterodera filipjevi. The wheat roots and leaves were randomly divided into control group and groups exposed to 62.5, 125 and 250μg/ml SA. A spectrophotometric analysis was carried out using root extracts from infected plants at 4, 7 and 11days post inoculation with nematode (DAI) for peroxidase and PAL. The expression of peroxidase (113-114) genes was evaluated by Real time PCR analysis. Peroxidase activity was significantly increased in treatments exposed to 250μg/ml of nanosalicylic acid at 11 DAI. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity was induced in the treatments exposed to 250 and 125μg/ml  nanosalicylic acid compared to the control at 4 and 7 DAI, respectively. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity was also increased in the treatments exposed to 62.5 and 250μg/ml of nanosalicylic acid compared to the control at 7 DAI. The expression level of peroxidase 113-114
in wheat leaves was significantly raised at 4 DAI when 62.5μg/ml of nanosalicylic acid was used. There was also a significant difference between expression levels of peroxidase 113-114 genes at applications of 125 and 250μg/ml of SA in comparison with the control at 4 and 7 DAI, a significant decrease was revealed in the gene expression in treatments exposed to 62.5, 125 and 250μg/ml of nanosalicylic acid compared to the control at 11 DAI. It was concluded that higher concentrations of nanosalicylic acid have a potential effect on peroxidase and PAL activities in wheat infected by H. filipjevi. High concentration of nanosalicylic acid has inhibitory effects on the expression level of peroxidase gene.

The soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycine Ichinohe, SCN) is one of the most serious yields limiting pathogen on soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr) which is found in many soybean–growing regions throughout the world. Applying of resistant sources is one of the efficient measures to manage this nematode. In this study, reaction of 63 soybean lines to the soybean cyst nematode were evaluated in field and growth chamber conditions. Host resistance was determined on the basis of female index (i.e., number of female developed on the tested lines / number of female on the standard susceptible cultivar Lee 74 as percentage). The results demonstrated that five lines were defined as resistant, whereas 14 lines with FI 10 to 29 were considered as moderate resistance. Subsequently, 22 lines were demonstrated as moderately susceptible and 22 lines were characterized as susceptible lines. The lines which showed resistance and moderate resistance in field conditions were selected for assay under control conditions. The results of pot experiments conducted under control conditions verified the field findings.

Cabbage cyst nematode (Heterodera cruciferae, Franklin, 1945) is a nematode that probably due to less geographical distribution and relatively lower crop losses in comparison to related species has gained less attention. All members of Brassicaceae and some species of Lamiaceae are infected by the nematode. Cabbage cyst nematodes was observed in vegetable growing areas of suburb of Tabriz on cabbage and some weeds such as Chenopodoum album, Sonchus asper and Sisymbrium loeselii as well. A population of this nematode collected from the infected vegetable fields of Tabriz and its identity was confirmed based on morphological, morphometrical and molecular data. Propagation and maintainance of the nematode was carried out on its main host (white cabbage and kohlrabi) under greenhouse conditions. RNA was extracted from the nematode and transcriptome of the population including third, fourth stage juveniles and adult females analysed. The results revealed that most already reported parasitism genes from other plant parasitic nematodes such as potato cyst nematode, sugar beet cyst nematode, reniform nematode and pine wood nematode are expressed in cabbage cyst nematode, too. Furthermore, it was found that, β-1,4-endogluconase, 14-3-3, glutathione peroxidase, pectatelyase, chitinase, major sperm protein, calreticulin, calmodulin, venum allergen like protein, ubiquitin extension protein, peroxiredoxin, chorismate mutase, aldolase, annexin, galectin, VRFamid receptor and arginine kinase could be considered as a part of the nematode parasitism effectors. All sequences were deposited in NCBI.

Potato golden cyst nematode(Globodera rostochiensis) is the most destructive plant-parasitic nematode of thise crop and surching for variuse control ways is very essential.. Because of the chitin is a dominant composition in middle layer of the eggshell in nematodes, using of the chitinases by chitin-degrading enzymes in a wide range of the fungi is a good strategy for biological control of the potato golden cyst nematode. In this research 154 fungal isolates were recovered from infected eggs of the potato golden cyst nematode, G. rostochiensis. These isolates were identified based on morphological and molecular features including internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) of ribosomal DNA.. The ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S sequences were obtained by sequencing both strands in opposite directions using the PCR amplification primers, ITS1 and ITS4 in genomics resource laboratory at Massachusetts University, USA. In this study, according to morphological features and sequencing of ITS regions of ribosomal DNA, these 154 isolates were classified in 13 genera, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Beauveria, Candida, Chaetomium, Cylindrocarpon, Fusarium, Trichocladium, Lecanicillium, Plectosphaerella, Purpureocillium, Trichoderma andUlocladium. The five fungal species Candida parapsilosis, Cylindrocarpon olidum, Trichocladium griseum, Plectosphaerella cucumerina and Ulocladium dauciare reported for the first timefrom G. rostochiensis in Iran. As a producer of various enzymes, the filamentous fungi has been suggested as an important means of biological control for G. rostochiensis.