Investigation on available freshwater below the sea in offshore aquifers (i.e. part of the coastal aquifer is stretched beneath the sea) can provide a resource for ecological demand in the future. In this study, to understand the response of intruded seawater to freshwater recharge that is leaked from the riverbed, various scenarios with different aquitard length and permeability or river conductance have been introduced. SEAWAT dispersive code is used for seawater intrusion simulation and saltwater wedge toe position, mixing zone thickness and saltwater volume were estimated. The results showed that the river conductance influences the volume of freshwater in offshore aquifers significantly. Thereby, small conductance value (i.e. 0.0025 m2/d in this study) leads to a negligible impact on saltwater characteristics but as this coefficient grows up to a specific amount, more freshwater is released from the riverbed which could significantly affect saltwater characteristics (60% reduction in brackish water volume). Nonetheless, extra-large conductance (i.e. 375 m2/d in this study) cannot sharply affect seawater recession due to high-velocity magnitude of recharged freshwater and limited contact time with the saltwater wedge. Hydraulic conductivity and length of aquitard also affect the results; so that the extension of aquitard length to the dry land boundary will cause reduction in the recharged freshwater and consequently reduce the intruded saltwater especially in the vicinity of aquifer bed.

World trade organization (WTO) introduces “ trade in services” as the most dynamic segment of international trade. Developing countries and transition economics have played an increasingly important role in this area. The WTO’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is the only set of multilateral rules covering international trade in services. While services account for an overwhelming share of overall economic activities, “offshore outsourcing” in the service sector being, formed many decades ago, seems to be an important issue for lots of countries. This article concentrates on surveying “offshore outsourcing” mode of supply in comparison with four modes of supply that are mentioned in GATS. Empirical analysis on the mode of supply in offshore outsourcing is very limited.
Theoretical Framework Business structures and economic entities responded to change in technology by relying on outside entities to perform various functions. In the past years, only the manufacturing and manual labor-based functions were susceptible to outsourcing in foreign countries. Today, advancement in communications, technology, transportation, and free trade has widened the range of functions that can be sent to the overseas vendors. Lawmakers have acknowledge that offshore outsourcing may involve issues related to privacy, labor rights, intellectual property, immigration, environmental protection, taxation, export controls, and national security. One of the important issues in the field of service sector of economy is the mode of supply in service.
Methodology At the very early stages of the emergence of “offshore outsourcing” phenomenon, professionals from different areas of science were attracted to the impacts of this process on the world economy. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has published different works on offshore outsourcing aspects. In this research, the descriptive method has been used in defining and introducing offshoring and trade in separate services as well as an integrated economical processes. However, at the core of the research when the writer is developing new concepts about the modes of supply in offshore outsourcing and re-interpreting the existing modes of supply, the conceptual analysis as the, method of research is used. In both parts, the documentary and publication research method is used to gather data.
The way or modes of supply in offshore outsourcing is not exactly according to one of the four modes of supply in GATS. It has different reasons, some of them I think refer to the economic theory called “ the three-sector theory, while some others are related to” the integrated nature of this economic process. GATS identifies four different ways or “modes” of supplying services. As for many services, remote supplying is impossible, the first mode is not often taken but in offshore outsourcing of financial services, telephone centers and some other services that can transfer via the wire or wire less technology and do not need to face to face connection, offshore outsourcing is possible and quite common. The second mode is the most liberalized one in terms of commitment, while the third mode is more open and has the largest share in global value chains. However, offshore outsourcing in manufacturing has more similarities with mode (3).Mode (4) that refers to presence of persons of one WTO member in the territory of another for the purpose of providing a service is not common in offshore outsourcing. Mode of supply for offshore-outsourcing in the service sectors seems a lot more complicated than the four existing modes of supply of services in GATS. For a service to be effectively produced or delivered, the proximity between the consumer and the supplier is often a necessary condition.Thus, in addition to cross-border supply (mode 1), GATS also covers cases where consumers move outside their home territory to consume services (mode 2- consumption abroad), and cases where suppliers move to the territory of the consumers to provide their services, whether by establishing a commercial presence abroad (mode 3), or through the presence of natural persons (mode 4).
Conclusion Our studies and findings in this research show that the intervention of contractual relations and outsourcing of business activity or other services from one company to another across countries define the special and synthetic nature of the mode of supply.
The most simple way of supplying services in “offshore outsourcing” is in accordance with the first mode of supply. However, in the proposed offshore outsourcing production, the mode of supply is more complex and synthetic.
In fact, the service provision in offshore outsourcing, specially, in producing sectors, is partly the result of consumption in the country of origin and partly the exportation of the offshore destination country. This is the distinction between the offshore outsourcing from foreign investment and the reason of complexity of the mode of supply of services.
As a result, studies on the different factors of the offshore outsourcing of services will be critical and fruitful for the future of the economy and its regulations

Most of oil and gas offshore platforms are located in the seismic regains. So, Seismic vulnerability evaluation of the offshore platforms is one of the most important and vital issues in the structural systems. In this study, jacket type offshore platforms are studied by incorporating the pushover analyses and nonlinear time history analyses, in such a way that, first some push over analyses are performed to detect the more critical members of the jacket platform according to the range of their plastic deformations. Then, nonlinear time history analyses are performed, concentrating on the critical members, to investigate the vulnerability of the jacket platform under intensive earthquake loads. Based on the numerical results, the combination of the push over analyses and nonlinear time history analyses presents a reliable and swift seismic assessment procedure to estimate the seismic vulnerability of the offshore platforms. Moreover, seismic vulnerability of the offshore structures is dependent on the critical member locations and their load bearing situations in the offshore structures.

Offshore structures are subjected to highly dynamic, irregular external loads from the air, water and soil. One of the most important forces affecting design, construction, installation, and maintenance of such structures considerably is wave force. Accordingly, accurate calculation of the wave force acting on offshore structures is one of the first steps of design process to ensure structural safety of all components under different environmental conditions. Nevertheless, such calculations are not only difficult but also computationally expensive. The main reasons for such complexities are the probabilistic and randomness of sea waves as well as the dynamics of Fluid Structure Interaction (FSI) which make the assessment of wave loading on offshore structures a challenging procedure in offshore engineering practice. It is therefore the main objective of this research to present effective alternative approximation methods based on the Morison’s equation for determining wave loads acting on the structural components of the offshore supporting structures that are slender compared to the wave length (e.g. legs, braces, spokes and mooring lines). The comparison results show that the proposed method can be more efficient with time and also a reliable method in initial design of offshore platforms with acceptable results compared to the conventional approach.

In contrast to the strategy of preponderance, the grand strategy of offshore balancing can be pursued to achieve the goals of isolation or hegemony. The U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East has been changing from preponderance to offshore balancing, which has occasionally (and erroneously) been interpreted as the US isolationist tendency to begin the total withdrawal of its forces from the Middle East, followed by the decline of its influence in the region. The authors investigate why and how George W. Bush (2001-2009), Barack Obama (2009-2017), and Donald Trump (2017-2021) followed a similar strategy of offshore balancing, despite all their differences. The study intends to answer the following research questions: 1. To what extent were the US foreign policy strategies and its actions in the Persian Gulf different during the presidencies of Bush, Obama, and Trump? 2. Why did the three presidents follow the same grand strategy, despite the apparent differences, particularly in their worldview, leadership style and personality traits? In the research hypothesis, it is postulated that even though the U.S. pursued the strategy of offshore balancing during the presidencies of Bush, Obama, and Trump, differences in personality, policy-making style, and security threat assessments of these presidents have had an impact on the transformation of the U.S. foreign policy in the region. With a qualitative approach, the method of events and historical data analysis is used to test the hypothesis. The U.S. policies and reactions to the recent events such as the rivalries between Iran and the southern Persian Gulf countries, the political instability of Syria, Iraq and Lebanon, the great powers competition in the region are examined.International relations scholars have different ideas regarding what the strategy of offshore balancing represents, and whether a given U.S. president is an offshore balancer or not. The present study views these differences as an indication of the variations of this strategy. First, one needs to present an inclusive definition of offshore balancing, and for such a definition, one needs to identify the common elements of the various definitions given by different scholars. Different policy goals and means of implementation of offshore balancing have been discussed, but most scholars agree on two points: First, offshore balancing emphasizes the use of naval and air forces, while ground forces should be used only in very special circumstances and on a temporary basis. Second, offshore balancing assigns roles to regional actors, whether allies or competitors which must contribute to the cost of collective defense in the region on the basis of a burden and responsibility sharing formula. Variation in offshore balancing occurs at different levels; for instance, between defensive versus offensive realism, between pursuing a more offshore presence versus a more favorable balance of power.In conclusion, the authors argue that offshore balancing has been the U.S. grand strategy in the Persian Gulf since 2006, but its goals have changed in response to the need to react to different circumstances. In the last two years of Bush presidency, he was under pressure to find a balance of power arrangement that would end the war in Iraq, while achieving the hegemonic goal of democratization. The cost of upholding the current liberal global order and providing American security guarantees for US allies have adversely affected the prosperity of American people, who expect their politicians to give priority to the economic national interest. Because of the slowdown in the U.S. economy as a consequence of the 2008 financial crisis and military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, Obama followed the strategy of offshore balancing with the goal of reducing the costs of the U.S. foreign policy adventures, and finally ended up being more in favor of an ‘offshore than balanced’ strategy. During the Trump era, offshore balancing was more influenced by the idea of “make America great again,” with its touch of realism. Bush had to deal with the security implications of the September 11 attacks, and acted on the basis of offensive realism and the logic of hegemonism. Obama sought isolationism based on defensive realism, while Trump returned to offensive realism.

This study focuses on designing a digital transformation model for the offshore oil and gas industry in Iran to be utilized in the strategic planning and policy-making process in the industry. While applying digital achievements and novelties in the oil and gas industry is not new, employing digital transformation in this sector is relatively new. Digital transformation, when implemented in the Iranian offshore oil and gas industry, helps the sector become a world leader, therefore benefiting from all the benefits that come along with digital achievements.
 
This research adopts a qualitative approach and utilizes the grounded theory research strategy. The data gathered from interviews with industry experts and documentation and reports concerning digital transformation, especially in the oil and gas industry, helped the researchers construct a comprehensive model. Through the grounded theory approach, the study could design a model of digital transformation in the offshore oil and gas industry of Iran, including six main elements: phenomenon-centered, consequences, causal conditions, contextual conditions, intervening conditions, and strategies.
 
One of the most notable instances of phenomenon-based digital transformation in the offshore oil and gas industry involves using digital technology tools for data-driven decision-making, consistency in industry decisions, and improving operational efficiency and productivity of personnel and equipment. Furthermore, among the most effective strategies to achieve this goal at the organizational level, stand cooperation with various bodies such as reputable information technology and communications companies, universities, and active startups in the digital technology sector. Also, promoting an organizational culture based on the adoption of digital technologies at industry and national levels via establishing stringent environmental and safety regulations for personnel who work on offshore platforms and supporting investment in digital transformation in the oil and gas industry can help with reaching the set targets.
 
The key consequences of digital transformation in the offshore oil and gas industry at the organizational level include increased efficiency in organizations active in the offshore oil and gas industry, increased accuracy and speed in decision-making based on data analysis, and the possibility of proactive, targeted maintenance and cost-saving in organizations. Digital transformation in this industry can lead to consequences such as increased oil recovery factor from offshore oil reservoirs, reduced environmental risks in marine environments, and improved performance in the offshore oil and gas industry at the industry and national levels.

Offshore is ready for terrible events for oil and gas industry. Differences between fixed/submersible offshore oil facilities and onshore facilities is that the latter is fenced at least and protected while no such boundary exists for offshore facility. Classical lawyer and insurance practitioners believe that the insurance policy is categorized in the adherence contracts group, therefore it is not negotiable. But I believe insurance contracts are seeking to meet project and contractual requirements. In fact, it follows to share risks whichis incompatible with the nature of the adherence contracts. On the other hand, offshore facility insurance has its own special characteristics that require examining and comparing with other onshore samples. In this article, the governing rules on offshore oil field development operation insurance policies will be studied.

The goal of this article was to examine the Jurisdiction in International Law of the Sea in conflict between right to protection of offshore facilities and freedom of navigation. Ships are under nationality of their flag state in the high seas and offshore zones. Seizure of the ship and arrestment of its crew in the exclusive economic zone under the control of the coastal government on the pretext of violating its offshore facilities and equipment were assessed interference in flag State and his sovereignty affairs. Coastal government is allowed to take security measures to prevent and manage dangerous maneuvers of environmental activists to offshore facilities in protest to its offshore activities. Final conclusion showed that seizure of ships and arrest of environmental activists by the Russian state is an illegal act and in conflict of jurisdiction of the Netherland’s flag State according to the recent judgment of the Arbitration Tribunal.

Economical design with sufficient fracture resistance is of high importance in any offshore pipeline projects. Using an Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA), alternate acceptance criteria for pipeline girth weld inspection can significantly reduce the cost of constructing of offshore oil and gas pipeline by minimizing unnecessary repairs. Offshore pipelines consist of short pipeline segments connected by girth welding method. Surface and embedded elliptical cracks due to welding operation are often observed at welding zone which pose a potential threat to the reliability of the offshore pipelines. To derive the acceptance criteria for pipeline girth weld defects and pipeline safety during installation and operation phase, an ECA based on fracture mechanics is required. In this paper, ECA of offshore pipeline with semi elliptical surface crack under pure tension loading is performed according to finite element method and BS7910 guideline. Moreover, a comparison between these two methods is offered. It is concluded that, ECA by BS7910 guideline is more conservative than finite element method, and the difference between the two diagrams increases as strain levels are increased. Also, comparisons of critical crack size curve for various strain levels are studied.

Samples of Zooplankton of Bardestan Creek and its offshore waters were collected using a 100 cm long (30 cm diam.) mesh net of a 110 µm pore size in March (winter) and August, 2014 (summer) on a fishing boat; preserved in 5% formalin, identified and population abundances per cubic meter counted. Eighteen stations (9 stations each in the creek and offshore waters) were sampled. |Mean zooplankton abundances for the Creek and its offshore waters significantly differed (p0.05) between zooplankton abundance and temperature or salinity.