پژوهش نامه تاریخ اسلام
سال دوازدهم شماره 47 (پاییز 1401)

The significance of ʿĀshūra in the history of Islam and its impact on societies has been a subject of discussion since long ago. According to their vision and insight, Islamic researchers, have recorded impressions of this event in their works. The main question of the current research is what the political, military, and cultural conditions of the Qajar period up to the Mozaffar al-Din Ŝāh era had to do with the construction of discourses related to the events and rituals of ʿĀshūra and their reflection in the society? This research, with a historical perspective and analytical-descriptive approach, aims to scrutinize the impact of various areas from the beginning of the Qajar period to the reign of Muzaffar al-Din Shah on epic, emotional, superstition-oriented, and fatalistic discourses. The findings of the research show that each of the prominent writers of this era had a different reading of the ʿĀshūra event and this had a great impact on the Qajar society. Therefore, sometimes the essence of the event has been distorted, misunderstood, and misused.

Hakam ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān nicknamed al-Mustanṣir Billāh (350-366) is one of the Umayyad caliphs of Andalusia who paid special attention to scientific affairs. Hakam, who was a Scholar himself, made many efforts to support science, gathering scholars, encouraging them to go on scientific journeys, and authoring works. He was also very interested in buying books and equipping and developing the palace library. Hakam’s behavior with tolerance towards the scholars of different schools, sects, and religions led to an increasing scientific prosperity among scholars and different schools. The main question of the research is, what was Hakam al-Mustanṣir's performance in supporting science and knowledge, and how much did these supports affect the scientific growth and promotion of Andalusia? Using a library method and a descriptive-analytical method, this article has investigated Hakam's efforts in the field of science promotion and has shown the effect of these supports in the scientific growth and promotion of Andalusia. The findings of the research show that as a result of Hakam's activities, Andalusia enjoyed a high ranking in the field of sciences, especially poetry and literature, Maliki jurisprudence, genealogy (Anṣab), Ḥadīth and some natural sciences; Vast scientific endeavors took place and numerous works were authored, and the most important and richest library in the west of the Islamic world came into existence in Córdoba.

According to the tenets of Shīʿite jurists, any interaction strengthening the authoritarian rulers is illegitimate and unlawful. Based on historical reports, Shīʿite jurists embarked on interacting with the Buyid dynasty. Regarding the fact that an accurate understanding of historical events is not feasible without analytical investigation and explanation of social factors, this article elaborates on the social reasons behind the interaction of Shīʿite jurists with the Buyid dynasty. The question raised in this study is: What were the social reasons behind the interaction and cooperation of Shīʿite jurists with the Buyid dynasty Amirs? It is hypothesized that were several reasons including Islam's emphasis on interaction and cooperation, realization of religious goals, preventing Shīʿites from being isolated, excluded, and suppressed in society, etc. that gave rise to the interaction of Shīʿite jurists with the Buyid dynasty. On the other hand, interaction and cooperation as an ethical value and a behavior style are of high importance in the Islamic mindset and are considered as one of the principles of the Buyid dynasty and characteristics. Abiding by this moral value instigated the Buyid dynasty's interaction with the Shīʿite jurists who, in turn, started interacting with Buyid as well. This research investigates the social reasons why Shīʿite jurists interacted with the Buyid dynasty, using the analytical-historical method.

Sufis were one of the Muslim social classes in the Middle Ages and were respected by the strata of Islamic society. After gaining power, the Seljuk Turks, especially the Great Seljuk, needed political and social acceptance to consolidate their power. They realized that one of the ways to achieve acceptance was to honor Sufiya and enjoy public publicity and their benediction for the continuation of the monarchy. The Seljuqs believed that communication with the Sufis was one of the components of confirming their rule. This relationship will cause the society's tendency towards the sultans and eventually cause their political and social acceptance. This research studies the position of the Sufis in the period of the Great Seljuqs or the Seljuks of Iran and the ups and downs of communication between them. The method of conducting this research is descriptive and analytical. The results of the research show that the Seljuqs, considering the importance of Sufis' position in society, established good relations, and respected them to achieve their goals, i.e., gaining political and social acceptance. In the meantime, some Sufis refused to communicate with Seljuq due to their opposition to the Seljuk government.

The Safavid dynasty (1135-907) was the result of more than two centuries of patient preparation of Safavid sheikhs to reach power. Until before the period of Ṣāfī al-Din Ardabili, the Sufis turned to isolation and distance from the centers of political power. during the period of the Safavid sheikhs, a kind of metamorphosis occurred in the thought of the Safavid sheikhs, which can be referred to as their gradual entry into politics using financial and social Struggles. The present research tries to answer this basic question by using the descriptive-analytical approach and the library method, what were the most important financial and social efforts of the Safavid sheikhs in the long time and stable management of the Safavid Tariqa? The research hypothesizes that the Safavid sheikhs managed the Tariqa and established the government in a long process by relying on people and informal financial and social efforts. The results of the research show that the Safavid sheikhs, through creating links between rural and nomadic areas with the city institution and using the financial capacities of these three institutions, Optimized of incomes related to endowment  (waqf), khums (xums(, zakat and Anfal, people-oriented management of the Safavid Tariqa, Emphasis on clean bite, financial benefit from holy war with Shirvanshahs infidels, attention to the oppressed and poor layers and utilization of bureau and tax exemptions that granted by the concurrent rulers, in a long time and patient process, succeeded to establish the Safavid government.

The Constitutional Revolution had a widespread impact on the social and administrative structures of Iranian society. One of the most important religious institutions in Iran, the Āstān-e Qods-e Razavi, was affected by this event due to its internal problems. The Āstān-e Qods faced a financial crisis, and some constitutionalists in Mashhad also demanded reform of the flawed traditional structure of this endowed institution. The appointment of Ṣadr al-Mamalek as the trustee (Motevalli), considering his ancestral and occupational background and the changing political conditions in society after the Constitutional Revolution, paved the way for reforms in the Āstān-e Qods. This article aims to examine the reform measures undertaken by Ṣadr al-Mamalek in the Āstān-e Qods from 1325 to 1329 and demonstrate what reforms he implemented in the Āstān-e Qods-e Razavi and how the custodians of the holy shrine reacted to his reforms. The results of this research, based on descriptive-analytical analysis of documents and publications, indicate that Ṣadr al-Mamalek was appointed as the Motevalli from Muḥarram 1325, after various challenges, attempted to change the financial and administrative situation of this endowed institution by reforming its administrative structure and establishing a cabinet. However, his actions faced opposition from some of the custodians of the holy shrine. Opponents, to preserve their interests, created a reformist council for the Āstān-e Razavi (Heyate Eslāh Khahāne Āstāne Razavī), and engaged in coordinated provocative actions, spreading rumors, and even making threats until, ultimately, after four years, Ṣadr al-Mamalek was dismissed and his reforms failed.