مجله محیط زیست و توسعه فرابخشی
پیاپی 83 (بهار 1403)

Today, among synthetic materials, its production in various types and applications is increasing day by day. Plastic and plastic compounds. These plastics have been used in the production of various industrial products, and these materials have created many environmental challenges as waste resistant to microbial decomposition. So that the use of industrial polymers causes problems such as solid waste and global warming. And the materials that are currently used in the packaging of food, beverages, medical and pharmaceutical products, as well as in industrial uses, are non-degradable. For this reason, researchers are looking for the production of biodegradable plastics to solve this challenge.

The main goal of the current research is to investigate the barriers to the production of biodegradable disposable containers under conditions of uncertainty with the help of the fuzzy Delphi technique. The statistical population of the research includes the specialists and experts in the production of disposable biodegradable containers in the factories of Behzit Tehran, Zoebbehd Pars, Zarin Shimi, MG Plast, Kimia Samane Sabz, Navad Tabriz, Pars Plastic Khuzestan, Shiraz Sabz, Mehrparsa, Adine Plast. Sampling of experts was done until reaching theoretical saturation, and the sample size of 10 people was selected from experts of the factories.

The results of the present research show that among the economic challenges, lack of investment in production with a factor of 0.72, the cost of raw materials for production with a factor of 0.71, lack of providing suitable facilities for production with a factor of 0.77 and the cost of providing machinery for production Biodegradable plastics are effective with a coefficient of 0.78. Among the technological challenges, poor skill and expertise for product packaging and production with a factor of 0.81, lack of access to global markets to update new production technologies with a factor of 0.72 and lack of access to the technology required to implement the production of biodegradable disposable containers They are effective with a factor of 0.7. Finally, among the legal challenges, the non-compliance of container production with environmental rules and regulations with a coefficient of 0.75 and cumbersome administrative policies and rules for the production of biodegradable plastics with a coefficient of 0.71 are effective.   

Based on the results obtained in the current research, it has been determined that there are important challenges in the production of biodegradable disposable containers in Iran from all three dimensions, economic, technological and legal, of which technological challenges seem to be the most important challenges. and then there are economic challenges and obstacles related to the current laws.

One of the main concerns of governments in recent years has been the increase in per capita health expenditures, which is affected by several factors. The increase in gross domestic product (GDP), air pollution index and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have had direct and indirect effects on health expenditure per capita. An increase in GDP can improve life, but an increase in air pollution and CO2 emissions caused by human production activities usually causes health problems such as respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and climate changes. Health problems can increase the per capita health expenditure of people. In addition, these costs have negative effects on the economic productivity of society. Therefore, in this research, the relationship between air pollution and gross domestic product with health expenditures in the big cities of Iran including Tehran, Shiraz, Mashhad, Tabriz, Isfahan and Ahvaz is investigated. Considering that household income and air pollution are among the factors affecting household health expenses, therefore, investigating the relationship between these variables can be effective in finding solutions to improve the health level of the society and solve economic problems caused by the increase in health expenses.

In this study, the panel data model was used to investigate the factors affecting the per capita health expenditure in 5 major cities of the country. The investigated time period is between 2011-2022. To avoid fitting a false regression, the reliability of the variables is checked. To do this, Levin and Lane test is used. To test the co-accumulation of variables in the long term, Pedroni cointegration test was used, and to determine whether the model is a panel, Limer's F-test was used. Then, to determine whether the model is a model with fixed effects or a model with random effects, the Hausman test is performed. GMM method is used to estimate the model.

The results of the model indicate that the increase in gross domestic product (GDP), air pollution index and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions had a positive and significant effect on the increase in per capita health expenditures. In this way, air pollution caused by the economic growth of cities causes an increase in disease and an increase in the cost of health care. As a result, the continuation of air pollution and provision of health expenses by the government causes a larger part of the government's budget to be allocated to the provision of health expenses.

One of the most important goals of economic development is to achieve higher economic growth. It is expected that the health level of the society will improve as the GDP level increases. But the studies confirm that with the increase in the gross domestic product of each of Iran's big cities, the amount of air pollution has also increased, which has endangered people's health and caused an increase in health costs and an increase in the number of deaths. Therefore, in order to control the per capita health care costs in big cities, it is suggested to the authorities to consider using new and green technology, investing in public transportation and improving energy efficiency as well as preserving the environment in their plans. Also, imposing a tax on CO2 emissions and encouraging the use of clean and green energy can be an economic stimulus to change unsustainable environmental behaviors.

Iran is one of the ten countries with the most pollution, so research in this field is necessary. The goal of countries is high economic growth along with the non-emission of pollution. Environmental destruction and climate change are problems of all countries. Some people believe that economic growth leads to the destruction of the environment, and others do not accept this theory. Sustainable development means that today's generation must meet its own needs without compromising the next generation. Today, countries are trying to achieve sustainable development by minimizing environmental destruction in addition to economic growth. To achieve this goal, international treaties have been concluded between the countries of the world. Many environmental protection organizations were established. One of the long debates among economists is energy consumption. On the one hand, due to economic growth and the production of goods, energy consumption is needed, and on the other hand, the pollution caused by the consumption of this energy fuels environmental and non-climate pollution in countries. Because Iran is a country that sells oil and natural gas, it is a country that has a relative advantage in the field of fossil energy. Considering that Iran has a relative advantage in energy consumption, research in this field becomes necessary. Energy consumption can lead to more pollution.

This research examines the factors affecting energy consumption and pollution emission in Iran using the Markov switching method, fully adjusted ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares, and Johansen's method for the period of 1994-2021. In most of the studies conducted on the relationship between energy consumption and major macroeconomic variables, the influence of factors affecting energy consumption, especially factors affecting energy consumption and pollution emission in Iran, has not been paid attention to.

According to the results of this research, the Kuznets curve was confirmed by the dynamic time series method and it means that economic growth leads to pollution in the beginning, but then it causes pollution to decrease. Energy consumption has had a positive and significant effect on carbon dioxide emissions. According to the research results, GDP, energy consumption, foreign direct investment has a positive and significant effect on carbon dioxide emissions. Trade liberalization affects energy consumption from its effect on the environment. The environment can be affected by trade liberalization through the three channels of scale effect, combination effect and technique effect. The scale effect is a change in economic growth, the combination effect is a change in the structure of the economy, and the technique effect is a change in the method and technology used in production. According to the results, trade has a negative and significant effect on carbon dioxide emissions. The LR test showed that the model is nonlinear and the Markov switching method was used to estimate the model.

Environmental issues are one of the most important concerns of countries and creating a clean environment is one of the important goals of countries. According to the research results, using the Markov switching MS-ARMA (3,1,0) method, there is a positive and significant relationship between trade, GDP, and energy consumption with a break in energy consumption. Due to the effect of Iran's composition in energy-intensive industries, it has gained a relative advantage and trade has a positive and significant effect on energy consumption.

Anthropocentrism is one of the central causes of the environmental crisis which is rooted in consumerism, and consumerism in energy leads to more demand for natural resources. By criticizing anthropocentrism, environmental philosophy has qusstioned the dominant Western culture's conception of nature and has challenged this mainstream by criticizing instrumental rationality and emphasizing the intrinsic value of nature. Consumption is a key component to achieve sustainable development, and saving energy is one of the ways to achieve a cleaner and healthier environment and climate change management. The rapid increase in energy consumption for socio-economic activities is the main source of the continuous increase in greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming and climate change effects. From the environmental psychology perspective, dealing with climate change is considered a fundamental challenge that requires a deep understanding of the psychological processes involved in environmentally friendly behaviors and lifestyles in general, and energy consumption in particular. The evidence shows that technical interventions alone cannot have an effect in reducing energy consumption and consumers' behavior must be changed.

The main purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between environmental ethics and energy saving behavior of agricultural students. To achieve this goal, the survey method was used. The statistical population of the research was M.Sc. and Ph.D. agricultural students at Tehran University, which 126 of them were selected using simple random sampling method and Krejcie and Morgan table. The questionnaire was a data gathering tool that was designed in three sections: students' demographic characteristics, energy saving behavior and environmental ethics. The face validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by the experts in this field. Also, its validity was obtained using convergent and differential validity, and its reliability was obtained by calculating Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability.

The findings of the research showed that the students prioritized ecocentrism, theocentrism and anthropocentrism in the first to third priority, respectively. Based on the results of structural equation modeling, only ecocentrism environmental ethics was effective in energy saving behavior and the research model was able to explain 38% of students' energy saving behavior changes.   

Unlimited exploitation of natural resources to provide energy and wasting energy resources are clear examples of paying attention to human needs, without considering the capacity and potential of nature. With regard to eco-centric ethics, the discourse of intrinsic value should become the dominant discourse in energy policies, and without acknowledging the intrinsic value and rights of nature, the intrinsic value of nature is continuously ignored, and a shif from anthropocentric developmentalism to ecocentric approach should be prioritized in order to fill the gap between anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. The fact that students focus on anthropocentric or ecocentric views affects their understanding of the environment and its protection and their attitude towards the environment. Eco-centric education for students is one of the important priorities in this field. An education that makes students aware of the intrinsic value of nature. This process increases the critique of dominant values such as excessive energy consumption and highlights the negative effects of development. The key point in teaching environmental sustainability is educational approaches focused on the development of critical and reflective thinking. In these trainings, empathy with life on the planet, listening to the earth and action to protect the biosphere should be encouraged.

The growth of technology and industry has brought prosperity to mankind on the one hand, but on the other hand, it has caused the creation of physical, chemical, and biological pollutants in the environment and by creating unfavorable conditions in the work environment, it has endangered the basis of a healthy life. Suspended particles (Particulate Matter (PM)), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO) are among the standard and important pollutants in air pollution. In this research, the pollutants emitted from the chimneys of Semnan gypsum industries including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter (PM10), and dry dust have been studied in five Semnan gypsum factories.

The concentration of PM10 and dry dusts was determined using a particle measuring device (TCR-Tecora) and a Testo 350-M/XL device was used to measure gaseous pollutants. Sampling of industrial chimneys as well as the space around the factories has been done in four places. Also, risk assessment has been done by the William-Fine technique, which is a systematic risk assessment method to identify possible risks, estimate the level of risk in risk management, and reduce it to an acceptable level.

In this study, the amount of NOx is between 24.5 and 39 ppm, the concentration of SO2 is between 33.44 and 321 ppm, the concentration of CO is between 5 and 100 ppm, the concentration of PM10 pollutant is between 2.68 and µg/m3 97.66, ​​and the concentration of dry dust between 53.23 and 31896 mg/m3 was reported in the five investigated industries. For environmental assessment, 40 environmental aspects were identified using the William-Fine technique. For pollutants CO, SO2, NOx, PM10 and dry particles according to the risk priority number (RPN) calculated and according to the results of the category length, 4 risk classes were obtained with titles of very high, high, medium and low risk. Based on the ranking of 40 environmental aspects, the frequency of low category was 22, average category was 4, high category was 4, and very high category was 10. In gypsum units No. 3 and 4, the risks of PM10 suspended particles were among very high risks. Also, the risk related to dust dry in both chimney of factory No. 5 was reported at a very high level.

The concentrations of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and dry dusts are lower than the standard values ​​of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) related to chimney emissions (carbon monoxide: 435 ppm, sulfur dioxide: 800 ppm, nitrogen oxides: 350 ppm and Dry particles: 600 mg/m3). The concentration of PM10 based on the standard of the World Health Organization (WHO) was higher than the permissible limit (50 µg/m3), while it was lower than the permissible limit based on the EPA (150 µg/m3). The entry of PM10 suspended particles into the atmosphere and also the accumulation of dusts in the environment around the factory is one of the important environmental problems of gypsum factories. Based on the classification, 55% of the aspects were at the low risk level, 10% of the aspects were at the medium risk level, 10% of the aspects were at the high-risk level, and 25% were at the very high-risk level. Finally, in order to reduce the level of risk and for the effective management of these industries, measures such as changing the used fuel to clean fuel, regular monitoring of the quantity and quality of the exhaust gas flow from the industrial chimney, using filter masks when in contact with dust, replacing bag filters Impact type with jet pulse type is remarkable.

Urban parks serve numerous social and ecological functions, providing citizens with a convenient escape from urban life and an opportunity to reconnect with nature. Therefore, the management of urban parks should prioritize enhancing their utility through the incorporation of natural elements. The main objective of this research was to gain knowledge and to know the aesthetic preferences and willingness to pay of the Isfahan residents in using urban park.

In this study, 6 parks including Soffeh, Najwan, Ghadir, Hasht-Behesht, Laleh and Qalamestan were selected and the opinions of 150 visitors were analyzed and evaluated by convenience sampling method from different ranges of citizens. After designing and collecting the data of the researcher-made questionnaire and ensuring its validity and reliability, the descriptive statistics of the data were used for a better interpretation of the results. Information about access to the park was classified in the categories of travel time, time of visit per week, vehicle used to reach the park, and accompanying persons. A 5-point Likert scale was used to collect answers in each field. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also used to check the differences between the opinions of different groups. In this study, a desirability index was designed to measure people's willingness to attend and use the park.

The most frequent age group visiting the parks was 18 to 25 years old, comprising 24.28% of the visitors. Among the selected parks, Soffeh Park had the longest average travel time of 40.13 minutes, followed by Hashtbehesht Park with 38.73 minutes. The study also demonstrates that the choice of transportation means is influenced by the park's type and location. Soffeh Park and Hashtbehesht Park were predominantly accessed by public transportation, accounting for over 40% and 38% of visitors, respectively. Regarding the connection with nature, Soffeh and Najvan Parks exhibited a significant difference (p-value ≤ 0.05) compared to other parks. Overall, the results indicate that Najvan and Soffeh parks are commonly chosen for recreational purposes rather than their proximity to visitors' residences. On the other hand, parks with public designs are frequently utilized by local residents but less often by tourists or specific interest groups. Notably, visitors displayed a greater willingness to contribute financially to the preservation of Soffeh and Najvan parks, likely influenced by the natural ambiance these parks offer.

Based on the study's findings, it is recommended to enhance the naturalness of parks, expand their size, and consider designing parks tailored for specific purposes rather than general public use. Such measures are more likely to gain acceptance among citizens, leading to increased willingness to contribute financially and heightened desirability of the parks. It is suggested to classify the design elements of the parks and the quality of their presence and arrangement inside the park should also be considered as one of the important criteria of desirability. Considerations such as the per capita of each park, their size, and location are also one of the most important factors that affect the quality and desirability of the park.

The rising CO2 levels in the atmosphere are a major concern for the environment due to their potential impact on future global climate and the anthropogenic oceanic CO2 sink. Greenhouse gas emissions in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean regions have significantly increased since the 1950s. Oceans are crucial carbon reservoirs on Earth. Understanding the spatio-temporal variability in CO2 exchange between the atmosphere and sea, as well as its drivers, is essential for assessing ocean vulnerability and quantifying their ability to store carbon under future climate conditions. This study examines the spatial and temporal changes in sea surface CO2 (PCO2) and atmosphere-sea CO2 flux (FCO2) in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Caspian Sea, Arabian Sea, and Mediterranean Sea from 1982 to 2019. Additionally, the research will investigate the underlying mechanisms of seasonal PCO2  variability.

This study utilizes data from the Max Planck Institute to examine the temporal and spatial changes of air-sea CO2 exchange. The data was obtained by fitting a biogeochemistry diagnostic model of the ocean mixed layer to the ocean surface CO2 partial pressure data. Reanalysis data of temperature and wind speed was used to investigate the factors controlling the variability of FCO2 and PCO2. Additionally, the study examined the factors influencing the variability of PCO2 in each pixel, including the effects of temperature change and non-thermal components such as circulations, vertical mixing, biological changes, dissolved inorganic carbon, and upwelling systems.

CO2 flux has been estimated at up to 50 g C m-2 year-1 over the western regions of the Arabian Sea. The Red Sea is a source of CO2 in all seasons, except for the northern regions, which is a sink of CO2 in winter and spring. The intensity of the CO2 sink has increased in the Persian Gulf and the western areas of the Mediterranean Sea, and decreased in the eastern areas of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. The CO2 source intensity has decreased in most of the seas, including the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea and the central areas of the Mediterranean Sea during the studied period. Temperature is the most important driver of the seasonal cycle of PCO2 in the Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf and Red Sea. In addition to temperature, the non-thermal component also plays an important role in the central regions of the Red Sea and the southern regions of the Persian Gulf. The CO2 flux over the seas of West Asia follow the pattern of sea surface partial pressure of CO2. The CO2 flux has a high correlation of +0.80 with the wind speed in the western regions of the Arabian Sea, which is related to the summer monsoon. The high PCO2 (500 μatm) and FCO2 (140 g C m-2 year-1) over the northwestern Arabian Sea in the summer season are due to the monsoon driven upwelling of CO2-rich waters from the lower levels.

Significant changes were most noticeable in the western Arabian Sea. This signifies positive steps towards reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This region holds great socio-economic importance for the coastal countries, with its inhabitants relying heavily on fishing for their livelihood. This underscores the immediate need for science-based management strategies to address the effects of climate change and safeguard the socio-economic well-being of coastal communities in this area.

The decline in environmental quality has raised public concern about environmental issues. Even in the greenest countries, policymakers face the significant challenge of understanding why environmental policies are often ineffective in addressing these problems. According to the 2024 Global Environmental Performance Index, Iran ranks 133rd out of 180 countries, reflecting a poor global standing and numerous environmental crises, including ecosystem conversion, biodiversity loss, increasing dust storms, drying wetlands and lakes, water resource depletion, land subsidence, and air and soil pollution. Contributing factors include a lack of robust development plans, ineffective environmental policies, outdated laws and regulations, and inadequate coordination among agencies and organizations. These issues underscore the urgent need for effective environmental policymaking to address the growing crises. This study, recognizing the importance of the formulation stage in public policymaking, proposes a model for developing environmental policies in Iran to address these challenges and reduce environmental pollution.

This study employed a qualitative research approach, incorporating both library and field research methods for data collection. Data were gathered through note-taking and expert interviews. The analysis was conducted using a thematic analysis strategy, chosen for its ability to extract meaningful insights from qualitative data, such as interview transcripts. The coding and thematic analysis process followed a comprehensive, step-by-step approach. Using purposive sampling, the research team interviewed 13 experts, including university professors, environmental researchers, executives from the Environmental Protection Organization, and managers involved in environmental policymaking. The interviews continued until thematic saturation was achieved, indicating no new themes or concepts were emerging. To ensure reliability, the test-retest reliability index was applied to the coding of the interviews. In this approach, a few randomly selected interviews were coded and then re-coded after a certain period to compare the consistency of the codes. This technique helped verify the reliability of the thematic analysis process.

The study results indicate that a model for formulating environmental policies to achieve sustainable development comprises eight key themes: economic factors, social factors, environmental factors, political factors, legal requirements, institutional capacity, key stakeholders in policy formulation, and the process of formulating environmental policies. Each theme plays a crucial role in policy development. Addressing environmental issues without a collective approach to these themes is likely to be ineffective. A fragmented approach to implementing these themes can lead to disruptions in development and significant harm to environmental resources. The results emphasize the need for a comprehensive approach that considers all these factors to effectively address environmental challenges and work toward sustainable developmen.

To effectively tackle environmental crises, a holistic approach must be embraced in environmental policy formulation. Social, political, legal, and institutional factors must be carefully considered to avoid severe challenges and complications. Active participation from community organizations, NGOs, citizens, and local stakeholders in policymaking can play a significant role in resolving environmental issues. This requires not only the restructuring of institutional frameworks to strengthen environmental governance but also a review of existing legal systems to ensure they are conducive to effective policymaking. It also highlights the importance of combining bottom-up and top-down policies to improve environmental performance indicators. Bottom-up opportunities from local communities and civil society, along with top-down engagement from legislative, executive, and judicial branches, are critical to shaping effective policies.