نشریه یافته های تاریخی
سال یکم شماره 1 (بهار 1403)

Humans are the central subject in history and have made history and civilization. Although both humans and animals have the power of imagination, the power of human imagination is armed with the power of thinking, and a human is a creature whose talents and powers are perfected only in collective life. The primary purpose of this research is to explain and compare the definition of the human being from the viewpoint of Western physicians of Islamic civilization. Other purposes include investigating Greek philosophy's influence on Islamic civilization physicians' viewpoints in their definition of human. In this study, the documentary and library method has been used to examine books and articles. Based on the findings of this study, physicians considered man to be composed of body and soul and always believed in the influence and connection of soul and body to each other. Physicians thought that the rational soul is the critical distinguishable factor between animals and humans as the chosen creatures of God. Physicians of Western Islamic civilization, including Ibn Rushed, were more strongly influenced by Aristotle.

In the last few decades, several theories have been used to describe and explain the historical situation of Iran. One of the most influential theories has been the theory of the Asian production method. According to this theory, geographical and climatic conditions have the greatest influence on the formation of social and political systems. This article, with a historical approach, has evaluated Katouzian's views on the historical underdevelopment of Iran and aims to examine the content of Katouzian's historical writings to examine the degree of conformity of this theory with the historical reality of Iran. The research method in this article was descriptive and content-historical analysis in a documentary way. The findings of the research show that despite the shortcomings of the content of the historical writings of Mohammad Ali Homa Katouzian and their approaches to the causes and factors of the historical underdevelopment of Iran, the writings are worthy of reflection, and in these historical writings, geographical factors, internal tyranny and foreign colonialism in the social formation of Iranian society are considered the most important factors of historical underdevelopment.

The formation of the Emirate of Diriyah in the Arabian Peninsula and challenging the Ottoman Caliphate for more than half a century is one of the most important and fascinating events in the contemporary history of the Islamic and Arab world. Muhammad bin Ab al-Wahhab is the founder of the Salafi movement (Wahhabism) in the Arabian Peninsula. His teachings played an important role in the formation of the Emirate of Diriyah, or as they say, the Islamic Caliphate. This Islamic Emirate had four emirs who were from the Al Saud family and from the famous tribe of Muqrin (Bani Muqrin). They seriously threatened the existence of the Ottoman Caliphate, and they emerged from the city of Daraa, which was a hard-to-reach and strong city. They established their capital and led their expansionist attacks from there, ruled over the entire Arabian Peninsula for half a century, invaded Ottoman possessions such as Shalem, Iraq, and destroyed Shiite shrines in the cities of Najaf and Karbala, as the slogan of the revival of tradition. Their goal was to revive the Sunnah of the Prophet and monotheism. They had inherited these thoughts and ways from Sheikh Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab declared his call to fight polytheism and heresy and gathered many disciples around him. His views on the beliefs of Muslims were more than extreme. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab, by going to Diriyah and pledging allegiance to the Saudi emir Diriyah, laid the groundwork for the establishment of this emirate in line with the same slogan and entered into a war and exhausting battles with the Ottoman caliphate.This Islamic Emirate had four emirs who were from the Al Saud family and from the famous tribe of Moqrin (Bani Moqrin), and they seriously threatened the existence of the Ottoman Caliphate, and they emerged from the city of Daraa, which was a hard-to-reach and strong city, and there also They established their capital and led their expansionist attacks from there and ruled over the entire Arabian Peninsula for half a century and invaded Ottoman possessions such as Shalem, Iraq, and destroyed Shiite shrines in the cities of Najaf and Karbala, as the slogan of the revival of tradition They preached the Prophet and their goal was to revive the Sunnah of the Prophet and monotheism They had inherited these thoughts and ways from Sheikh Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab.They had inherited these thoughts and ways from Sheikh Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab.Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab declared his call to fight polytheism and heresy and gathered many disciples around him. His views on the beliefs of Muslims were more than extreme. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab, by going to Dariyya and pledging allegiance to the Saudi emir Dariyya, laid the groundwork for The establishment of this emirate provided the basis for the establishment of the emirate of Dariyya in line with the same slogan and entered into a war and exhausting battles with the Ottoman caliphate. Terminate.

The defeat of Darius III by Alexander the Great was the first major political defeat in the history of Iranian-origin governments. Then, the rise of the Parthians had an essential effect on the prominence of some elements of Iranian identity. With the presence of Greeks in the Achaemenid Empire, Hellenic culture also expanded. In this situation, the Iranian government of Parthian descent emerged east of the Iranian plateau and gradually paid attention to the Iranian cultural components in contrast to the Greek culture. Identity always shows itself against the "other". The emergence of the Hellenic culture in the government that the Iranians had formed created a duality of identity that formed different cultural, political and geographical characteristics. The present article aims to analyze the evolutionary process of Iranian identity in comparison with Greek and Roman identity, relying on the role of the Parthians and showing their significant identity achievements. During the Parthian period, Iranian identity gradually moved towards more Iranism and the rejection of Hellenic elements, and in the continuation of that, it came into conflict with Roman culture. By highlighting the elements of Iranian identity, they defined themselves in a different cultural-political sphere than the Greeks and Romans.

Historians of the Seljuk and Ilkhanid eras, from any social and geographical origin were interested in recording the relations of the people in power and presented a historical judgment about them. The developments of the ministry in these two eras have also been interesting topics for historians. The frequency of the concept of ministry in the intellectual system of Seljuk and Ilkhanid historians is one of the important factors in recognizing the importance of this institution in their historical perspective. Historians of this era saw consultation in general and the institution of the ministry in particular as a way to solve the problems facing the Seljuk and Ilkhanid rulers. The main question of this article is, which traits and characteristics did Seljuk and Ilkhanid historians see as necessary in the owners of the ministry and what characteristic did they emphasize in providing a practical model for competent ministers? It seems, they considered a combination of skills, rationality and wisdom, as well as personal and family moral qualities, to be the main and most necessary conditions for an ideal minister. The current research method is descriptive-analytical based on library sources, and what the author was looking for is the analysis of the ruling perspective on the selection, judging and authoring of historical narratives about the equipment and conditions of the ministry in the Seljuk and Ilkhanid eras.

The concentration and continuation of the military and economic power of the aristocracy in the feudal system in England was influenced by ownership and inheritance, which was different from the ownership and inheritance in the Iranian governments of the first centuries of Islam, which caused dispersion. Although the feudal system created different mechanisms of ownership, in the end, the rule of seniority in inheritance was accepted. This system continued based on land ownership and the mutual relationship between lord and vassal and strengthened the economic and military bases of the feudal lords. However, in Iran during the early Islamic centuries, due to the existence of inheritance rules, assets were generally divided among the survivors of the deceased, and the children of the new nobility quickly became small owners without power and accumulated wealth. The current research aims to investigate the effect of ownership and inheritance in weakening Iranian rulers and nobles in the early Islamic centuries and compares it with ownership and inheritance in England. Therefore, the article’s approach is comparative-adaptive and of the general comparison type. The current research is based on these questions: What was the difference between ownership and inheritance in the structure of the government system of England in the feudal period and Iran in the early Islamic centuries, and what consequences did they cause? The research findings show that feudalism and the rule of seniority perpetuated the aristocracy that challenged and limited the king's power. But in Iran, the rule of inheritance turned the nobles into small owners who could not face the rulers' unbridled power.