پژوهشنامه زبان ادبی
سال دوم شماره 1 (پیاپی 5، بهار 1403)

Reading and understanding classical literary texts poses a challenge for many modern readers. Rewriting, considered a form of intralingual translation, serves as a method to convey the concepts of these texts to contemporary audiences. This research aims to extract and analyze the uses of the word shādmānegi (joy) in Kalilah va Demnah through descriptive methods and semantic componential analysis, express the importance of these semantic components in understanding the message of the text, and critically evaluate the intralingual translations of this word in contemporary rewritings of Kalilah va Demnah. The study examines rewritings by several authors, including: Khadijeh Vahdāni (2012), Qodsieh Mohammadi (2012), Hamid Mirzā Rezā’i (2014), Rāhel ʿĀbedi (2017), Heliā Abolhasani (2018), Hasti Farrokh (2019), and Fāezeh Hababi (2023). The common feature of these rewritings is that they present Kalilah va Demnah in its entirety for an adult readership. This research seeks to answer the following questions: (1) What are the semantic components of the Persian word shādmānegi as employed in Kalilah va Demnah?, (2) How do the semantic nuances of shādmānegi differ from those of its near-synonyms, such as shād, within the context of the text?, and (3) To what extent do the semantic components of the equivalents used in contemporary rewritings of Kalilah va Demnah align with or diverge from the original Persian word shādmānegi? This descriptive-analytical study proceeds in two main steps: In the first step, it identifies the contexts in which the word shādmānegi is used in Kalilah va Demnah and analyzes the semantic components of the word. In the second step, the equivalents of shādmānegi which are used in contemporary rewritings are identified, and their meanings are determined using contemporary dictionaries. Then the usage of these equivalents are reviewed in the rewritings. To comprehend the semantic components of words like shādmānegi and shādmāni, it is crucial to examine them within their textual context and collocational chains. In Kalilah va Demnah, shādmānegi and shādmāni appear 5 and 7 times respectively. First, it is necessary to consider the meaning and usage of shādmānegi and shādmān in Kalilah va Demnah and contemporaneous texts. An illustrative example comes from the tale The Hare Who Tricked the Lion to His Death: “The hare returned safely. The beasts inquired about the lion’s condition. The hare replied, 'I caused him to be engulfed in such a way that he was devoured by the earth like Qārun’s treasure.' All mounted the steed of shādmānegi and roamed freely in the secure and comfortable meadow.” This passage concludes the aforementioned tale. In this story, the lion had become a menace to all forest animals, making their lives miserable. The hare, through cunning, lured the lion into a well, leading to his death. When the hare announces the lion's demise to the other animals, "all mounted the steed of shādmānegi and roamed freely in the secure and comfortable meadow.” This context provides insight into the usage and connotations of shādmānegi within the text, setting the stage for further analysis and comparison with contemporary rewritings. Based on this example and others analyzed, shādmānegi is consistently portrayed as a reward for achievement and victory, often manifesting when a group triumphs over an adversary. Etymologically, shādmānegi comprises two root words: shād (happy) and mān (think). Thus, shādmānegi and shādmāni refer to an emotion associated with a highly pleasant event for an individual or group. This emotion is characterized by happiness experienced each time the event is thought about or remembered. A comparison of the semantic components of shādmānegi with its equivalents in various translations reveals that these equivalents are not absolute synonyms. Shādmānegi carries specific semantic information such as: [+permanence], [+associated with a memorable event], and [renewable with each recollection]. In contrast, the equivalents used in translations (khosh, khoshhāl, shād, mashʿuf) are more neutral and can be considered unmarked words according to contemporary dictionary definitions. These unmarked words have a wider distribution and more neutral usage compared to shādmānegi. The findings indicate that shādmānegi is characterized by: [+durability], [dependence on a memorable event], and [+renewable upon recollection]. However, its equivalents in the rewritten texts are neutral to these components. This discrepancy in semantic components between the original word and its intralingual translations appears to be a significant obstacle in conveying the original text's message in the rewritings of Kalilah va Demnah. The intralingual translation of such vocabulary with specific semantic components presents a challenge in accurately preserving the nuances of the original text.

Women's literature has emerged as a significant component of feminist criticism in contemporary literary discourse. This development followed the women's movement for equal rights and gained prominence in the mid-20th century. In Iran, the Constitutional Era brought transformations that allowed women to enter various cultural and social domains. As modern society positioned itself against backwardness and superstitions, the concept of gender equality began to take root. Feminism sought to address inequality in language, challenging the predominantly male-oriented language of writers and poets, which often led to the suppression of women's voices. As this perspective expanded and female self-awareness grew, women writers of fiction made significant progress. They created new forms of communication between audience and writer by infusing their work with unique feminine emotions, feelings, and linguistic structures. From a stylistic-cognitive approach, a distinct type of writing can be attributed to female authors. Their works often focus on the identity and position of Iranian women, showcasing efforts to discover themselves and break free from societal norms. Women's writing, as a branch of feminist criticism, is considered a cognitive term. It suggests that female writing possesses distinct characteristics and components that can be examined in terms of vocabulary, sentence structure, imagery, and themes in the works of female writers. This unique style of writing has allowed women to create powerful narratives that challenge traditional literary norms and provide new perspectives on women's experiences and identities. By doing so, women writers have not only contributed to the literary landscape but also to the broader discourse on gender equality and women's rights. Women's writing reveals distinct linguistic features and traits, rooted in their unique emotions and experiences, which are less common in men's writing. The historical dominance of men in various aspects of life—culture, politics, history, language, and religion—has often resulted in women's confinement and limited expression. A fundamental challenge for women in defining their existence through writing is essentially a technical one; existing sentence structures often fail to adequately capture their characters and experiences. These limitations have prompted women writers to express gender issues and concerns in their works, advocating for linguistic transformation by depicting experiences such as childhood, mother-daughter relationships, marriage, sexuality, and femininity. Two notable works in Iranian fiction literature that exemplify this trend are She, A Woman by Chistā Yathrebi and Bānu’s Last Game by Belqays Solaymāni. In these novels, the authors aim to highlight gender inequalities, challenge misconceptions, and critique social customs regarding women. They present a feminine perspective on women's presence in society through their distinctive writing styles. Characteristics of women's writing in these works include: use of evocative sounds and color-rich words, extensive use of modifiers and emotional attributes, exploration of feminist themes, representation of women's experiences, depiction of childhood experiences, mother-daughter relationships, marriage, sexual issues, and femininity. These elements indicate a different understanding of women's position in the world compared to men's perspectives. Notably, the language of the characters in these works is influenced by the gender of the writer, with linguistic criteria of feminine language appearing more frequently than masculine language. Through such writing, women authors not only challenge traditional literary norms but also contribute to the broader discourse on gender equality and women's rights in society. Feminine writing and the influence of gender on language have garnered significant scholarly attention. Calvet distinguishes between sociolinguistics, which views language as a social subject, and social linguistics, which considers social forces as those that influence language. Through literature, women have sought to express a unique identity distinct from its masculine counterpart. The expansion of feminist ideas has significantly altered the tone and content of women's stories. A particular style and context now dominate these narratives, with many female writers consciously incorporating feminist thoughts to convey specific ideas. Feminine writing is essentially an interpretation of a particular feminine perspective in a work. As Fattāhi explains, "Feminine style means gendering literature based on the experience and perspective of women. This style insists on creating a feminine shape, voice, and content distinct from male voices. Women's writing means addressing issues, problems, and particular emotions of women to recognize the feelings and sensitivities of gender. Women's specific issues encompass situations and experiences unique to women both mentally and physiologically, which men cannot fully capture in their writing due to lack of direct experience.” In French feminist theory, feminine writing and perspective is a term defining women's writings. It posits that women's writings have a specific discourse closer to the body, emotions, and the unknown—elements often suppressed by social conventions. Writing and literature serve as important realms for revealing secrets and the unsaid, offering a space for imagination and creativity. This approach to writing not only highlights the unique experiences of women but also challenges traditional literary norms and contributes to the broader discourse on gender in society. By emphasizing these distinct perspectives, feminine writing enriches the literary landscape and provides valuable insights into the female experience. This research employed a descriptive-analytical method with a stylistic approach, focusing on the novels She, A Woman by Chistā Yathrebi and Bānu’s Last Game by Belqays Solaymāni. The study first elucidated the characteristics of women's writing style in these works, then demonstrated these features using examples from each novel. The analysis revealed deliberate portrayal of feminine writing by both authors. The characteristics of women's writing in these novels encompass linguistic layer (including vocabulary, expressions, intensifiers), syntactical layer (including interrogative forms, imperatives, directives), Stylistic layer (including attention to detail, simplicity in writing, short sentences), and Content layer (including feminism, self-discovery, self-exploration, existential concerns). Both authors demonstrated similar perspectives regarding these aspects, effectively applying the criteria of women's writing and integrating them into their characters' actions and behaviors. However, some differences in the authors' approaches were noted. Belqays Solaymāni's approach in Bānu’s Last Game appears to encompass a broader and more profound exploration of feminine writing aspects compared to Chistā Yathrebi's She, A Woman. Statistical breakdown of feminine writing elements indicated that Belqays Solaymāni in Bānu’s Last Game has employed the vocabulary layer by 62%, the syntactical layer by 13%, the stylistic layer by 7%, and the content layer by 11%, while Chistā Yathrebi in She, A Woman has utilized the vocabulary layer by 82%, the syntactical layer by 6%, the stylistic layer by 3%, and the content layer by 7%. These findings highlight the authors’ conscious efforts to employ feminine writing techniques, while also revealing differences in their emphasis on various aspects of this style. The study contributes to our understanding of how contemporary Iranian women authors utilize feminine writing to express their unique perspectives and experiences.

Poetry often reflects the geographical environment in which it is written. This influence can be seen in the choice of metaphors and imagery. For example, in his poem "The Lake Isle of Innisfree," William Butler Yeats uses the natural beauty of Innisfree to criticize the harshness of urban life. By describing the sounds of bees, waves, and the peaceful environment of the island, Yeats give vent to his feelings towards urban life, and expresses his longing for a simpler existence. Similarly, the birthplace of the Persian poet Hafez significantly impacts his work. In one poem, he asks for “permanent wine” because even paradise cannot offer the beauty of the “Roknābād water and Mosallā garden” – both located in Shiraz, his hometown. This study focuses on how geographical setting shapes the way poets conceptualize emotions. Specifically, We will explore how the concept of "sigh" is portrayed across Persian, English, and Turkish poetry.

Theoretical Framework:

A cornerstone of cognitive linguistics, Conceptual Metaphor theory, as proposed by Lakoff (1993), posits that abstract concepts are understood through mappings from more concrete domains. This process, metaphor, allows us to comprehend complex ideas by relating them to familiar experiences. For instance, the Persian phrase "the dollar has gone up" employs the spatial concept of “upward movement”. Lakoff famously illustrated this with the concept of love, often metaphorically portrayed as a journey. Expressions like “Our relationship has hit a dead-end street” exemplify how abstract concepts are grounded in tangible experiences. Lakoff contends that such metaphorical thinking is fundamental to human cognition and language (Lakoff, 1993, 2003, 2021).

Corpus of the Study:

The corpus for this study comprises poems in Persian, Turkish, and English. Persian poets Sa’di (1399), Hafez (1391), and Attar (1378) are included, as are Turkish poets Shahriar (1377), Molla Mohammad Fozuli (1384), and Aliagha Vahid (1384). From English literature, the works of William Shakespeare, John Donne, and Edmund Spenser (Greenblatt & Abrams) are analyzed. The selection of these poets is based on the hypothesis that geographical location influences the conceptualization of "sigh" through metaphorical expressions.

The manner in which poets conceptualize the “sigh” is influenced not solely by language but also by the geographical and cultural contexts in which they live. In other words, it is not a language-specific issue, but rather a crosslinguistic one. While there are similarities across Persian, English, and Turkish poetry, significant differences emerge in the portrayal of this emotion. Persian poetry often depicts the sigh as a fiery and destructive force, which burns the house of the beloved, the Seven Seas, the Earth, the Sky, and the Stars. It is associated with arid and semi-arid climate and carries a sense of outward intensity. In contrast, the English sigh is frequently linked to water, suggesting a more inward-focused and melancholic tone. It is associated with humid climate and water. It makes floods and drowns the beloved, sometimes making tempests. Turkish poetry offers a middle ground, incorporating elements of both fiery intensity and gentle breeze. It does not burn the earth and the stars, nor does it make tempests. The timing of the sigh also varies across cultures. In Persian and Turkish poetry, the sigh is often associated with night or dawn, potentially reflecting the religious and spiritual significance of these times in Islamic cultures. English poetry demonstrates less specificity in the timing of the sigh, possibly due to different cultural and religious traditions. In Persian poetry, the "sigh" is often depicted as ascending to the sky and stars, whereas in English poetry, it is more commonly associated with tangible elements such as waves and the sea. In conclusion, the concept of the “sigh” is a rich tapestry woven from the threads of language, geography, and culture. By examining these factors, we gain a deeper understanding of how human experience is shaped and expressed through poetic language.

Persian literary prose represents an independent stream from the domain of Persian poetry. While it bears clear artistic and social responsibilities, it also possesses an autonomous aesthetic system. In classical Persian literature, prose has generally been overshadowed by the artistic and cultural dominance of poetry, and in traditional rhetoric, its aesthetic nuances and principles have been less thoroughly examined. This lack of attention has been so pronounced that even a clear and widely accepted definition of Persian literary prose and its works is not available within the literary community. This mode of expression has, on one hand, been the primary vehicle for thought and the principal instrument for conveying religious, philosophical, political, historical, and other concepts. On the other hand, it has assumed, and continues to bear, the significant responsibility of narration and storytelling to a greater extent than poetry. Therefore, defining its frameworks and recognizing its unique capabilities in creating literariness, and consequently influencing the audience, is of paramount importance. It appears that the rhetoric in syntax, as the most comprehensive rhetorical tool, alongside the balanced application of figurative primes, as well as an understanding of narrative poetics (which is independent of conventional rhetoric), could be the key to uncovering the beauty of ancient Persian literary texts. These are texts whose distinguishing literary qualities, in comparison to poetry and contemporary narrative beauty, remain unrecognized. Our hypothesis is that through the combination of rhetorical literature and narrative literature, one can arrive at a noteworthy criterion for assessing the literariness of ancient prose. In this fundamental research, we have endeavored, using a library-based method, to analyze three samples of Persian prose texts utilizing rhetorical and narrative tools to arrive at a reliable measure for distinguishing literary prose texts from non-literary prose texts. Based on the findings, the prose of Seyar al-Moluk [Rules for Kings] is literary from both rhetorical and narrative perspectives. The History of Sistan (both in its initial and final sections) possesses a literary narrative, but rhetoric does not predominate, and it cannot be termed rhetorical-literary. The prose of Zabān va Tafakkor [Language and Thought] is considered neither rhetorically nor narratively literary.

This study investigates the evolution and semantic variation of the particle "bar" in Persian prose from the 4th/10th to the 6th/12th centuries AH. This period witnessed significant transformations in grammatical categories and the emergence of novel meanings, particularly within the domain of particles, which is uniquely reflected in both exegetical and non-exegetical works of the period. The heightened focus on accurate translation and interpretation of the Quran during this era spurred scholarly interest in these evolving grammatical features. While subsequent scholarship has examined particles from various perspectives, a comprehensive analysis of particles as grammatical categories, their role in linguistic structures, semantic domain and components, and the historical factors influencing their development, as well as their role in the construction of irony, metaphor, and simile, remains lacking, especially for this period of early Persian prose. This research addresses this gap by employing a descriptive-analytical methodology. The analysis draws upon a corpus of 51 volumes encompassing 11 exegetical and 4 non-exegetical works. After identifying approximately 340 Persian particles with multifaceted semantic components, the particle "bar" was chosen due to its centrality in the aforementioned issues. Through library research and statistical data analysis informed by grammatical principles, this study explores the following: the syntactic function of "bar" within various linguistic structures; the historical and contextual factors contributing to the formation of its semantic domains and subcomponents; the influence of "bar" in constructing irony, metonymy, and metaphor within the selected texts. The findings reveal that authors employed both simple and complex structures featuring "bar" to express their ideas and convey Quranic and religious concepts. Moreover, the research suggests that authors paid particular attention to the semantic components of this particle, contributing to the preservation of Persian lexical purity by limiting the influx of non-Persian particles. Exegetical sources played a pivotal role in this regard, often overlooked in previous studies. Additionally, these sources contributed significantly to the expansion of verb meanings. The sources under discussion, with their social, ethical, and historical themes, have successfully crafted engaging prose with distinctive Persian characteristics by strategically employing the particle "bar" and selecting its appropriate semantic components. Beyond its extensive role in conceptualization and creating secondary meanings, the rhetorical function of "bar" in various constructions of metonymy, metaphor, and Irony is noteworthy from a grammatical perspective. In particular, "bar" serves as a pivotal tool in transforming metonymy into a prominent and widely used secondary meaning creator. The analysis reveals that both exegetical and non-exegetical sources have extensively utilized metaphor, following metonymy. Non-exegetical sources, in particular, have effectively employed metaphor to create vivid mental and abstract imagery, ensuring the enduring nature of their works. Irony emerges as the second most significant secondary meaning creator, enabling non-exegetical sources to enhance the imaginative and literary aspects of their prose through the use of "bar." A distinctive feature of this research is the identification of 45 interconnected semantic components associated with the particle "bar." The sheer number of these components surpasses those found in existing dictionaries, grammar books, and previous studies. Another significant novelty is the determination of the works and contexts related to the grammaticalization of these components within the sources under discussion, given their antiquity. Moreover, this study introduces another novel and noteworthy aspect, namely, the identification of various domains associated with "bar," including location, responsibility, attribution, and others, which are predominantly abstract. Additional novelties of this research include the presentation of diverse data on the application of semantic components in each of the exegetical and non-exegetical sources. Furthermore, the study provides percentages for the use of "bar" in metonymy, metaphor, and irony, as well as a comparative table illustrating these percentages.

Language, as the primary medium of literature and communication, plays a crucial role in creating literary works. Among the various tools writers and poets use to harness language's power and enrich their work is semantic deviation, a concept that emerged with the formalist school of literary criticism. Formalism brought fundamental changes to literary studies, asserting that every literary work is independent and self-sufficient. The school aimed to break free from past literary norms and boundaries, challenging conventional linguistic and literary principles. Formalists argued that literature's essence lies in deviating from these conventional language boundaries. According to formalists, style emerges from deviating from standard language use. They posited that a literary work's imaginative quality stems from surpassing common language norms for artistic purposes. Semantic deviation, in particular, became a fundamental tool for writers and poets to create novel meanings in their work. This perspective led to the introduction of the concept of defamiliarization in literature, emphasizing the idea that literary language should make the familiar strange, thereby enhancing the reader's perception and engagement with the text. Shklovsky introduced the concept of defamiliarization as a technique writers and poets use to make their texts appear unfamiliar to readers. This view, held by Russian formalists, was later challenged and expanded by the Prague school of linguistics. Unlike the formalists, who focused solely on defamiliarization in literary texts, the Prague school considered all textual elements, both familiar and unfamiliar. They argued that these elements are intertwined and mutually dependent, making it impossible to examine them in isolation. This holistic approach led to the replacement of defamiliarization with the concept of foregrounding. When a writer employs defamiliarization techniques, it creates a static and conflicting relationship between these mechanisms and other textual elements. However, foregrounding affects the overall structure of the text more dynamically. According to Leach, foregrounding occurs through two main methods parallelism and deviation. Parallelism can be thought of as an unexpected degree of regularity in the text, whereas deviation is an unexpected degree of irregularity in the text. This perspective provides a more comprehensive framework for analyzing literary techniques and their effects on the text as a whole. Non-normativity in literature occurs when a writer or poet uses terms and combinations that break the boundaries of standard language, challenging the reader's mind. This deviation from norms can be classified into eight main categories: lexical, syntactic, phonological, graphological, semantic, dialectal, stylistic, and historical, all of which affect meaning in various ways. Semantic deviation involves using phrases and sentences in novel ways, creating meanings that differ from their conventional usage in standard language. This is achieved through innovative semantic relations and imaginative forms. Nasrollāh Monshi's Kalilah va Demnah is notable for its significant use of imaginative elements, making it an important text for understanding the linguistic and literary style of 6th-century prose. This study aims to reexamine Kalilah va Demnah through the lens of semantic deviation, using the model presented by Farzān Sojudi. This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, explaining each type of semantic deviation based on Sojudi's perspective. Using a library research method and focusing on Nasrollāh Monshi's Kalilah va Demnah, the study categorizes and presents numerous examples of semantic deviation according to the specified theory. The research findings indicate that Nasrollāh Monshi consistently used semantic deviation in Kalilah va Demnah to enhance the text's imaginative quality and make better use of language. The frequency of semantic deviation in this work is higher compared to other types of norm deviation. This study contributes to our understanding of the literary techniques employed in classical Persian literature and highlights the importance of semantic deviation in creating ornate prose.