نشریه پژوهشهای معرفت شناختی
سال نهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 19، بهار و تابستان 1399)

One of the leading theories of perception in the ontology of the Islamic philosophy is the theory of mental existence. A variety of arguments have been offered for the mental existence which are mainly based on our cognition of non-existents. The sense-data theory seems to have many similarities with the theory of mental existence. The argument from illusion is the best-known and most historically influential argument for the existence of sense-data. This argument turns on an endorsement of the phenomenal principle and relational principle. The present article, after briefly reviewing these two theories and expressing their similarities and differences, first analyzes the argument of sense data which are established on illusion. Then, two new arguments for the theory of mental existence would be offered by using two principles of “presence” and “dependency”. According to the presence principle, the object of knowledge is present (exists) for the subject. But when one is subject to an illusion, the object does not actually exist in the external world and thus, it must exist in the mind. Also the dependency principle implies that the object (as far as it is dependent to subject) actually exists and thus, in the case of illusion, since the object does not exist in the external world, it must enjoy mental existence.

Heidegger is one of the philosophers who has made the most effort in his philosophy to pass from the epistemological project of subjectivism. He has pursued his own efforts on this issue in various aspects. This paper, however, specifically seeks to examine Heidegger's passing from subjectivism from a language aspect in his early and later thought. Therefore, we will first study and analyze the main components of the subjectivist project of knowledge. Then, with the insights that Heidegger has given in his work on language, such as considering language as an existential for Dasein, redefining concepts such as truth as unconcealment and logos as discourse, as well as emphasizing the relation between language and being that Historically determined, we try to justify our claim. It is argued that the epistemological project of subjectivism, which explains knowledge only on the basis of pure subjective activity, and neglects the hermeneutical aspect of language and its role in opening, disclosure and intelligibility of beings, cannot give a proper picture of how human access to the world is.

the implementation of Kant and Allame Ja'fari's views, Kant recognizing the formation of knowledge after passing through the intuitive and conceptual layers, There are subjective issues that it is impossible to achieve any knowledge without becoming evident in their forms. And this is the epistemological idealism. Also by thinking about the category of existence and causality, The possibility of acknowledging the foreign world has been denied to him And this also means that he is an ideal ontology. Allameh Jafari vs. Despite being realistic ontology And the proof of the external world is obvious, By inventing the theory of mental activity, He considers the unity of the outside world and the mind impossible Removes the mind from watching And this leads him to epistemological idealist theory. The Kant and Allame Jafari Similarities in Epistemological Idealism And their distinction is in their realistic realism.

This paper aims to explain the Plato’s viewpoint concerning the quality of knowledge of Forms (Ideas) of Good through the process of dialectic. In order to achieve this goal, author has analyzed the Plato’s works and his commentators regarding the quality of relation between dialectic and Forms (Ideas) of Good and the role of dialectic in the process of human’s epistemology to Forms (Ideas) of Good. The achievement of the paper represents that based on Plato’s idea the knowledge of human enjoys some stages and with every stage one recognizes the step of equal of being. Forms (Ideas) of Good is the origin of being and knowledge and it is in the highest stage of being and knowledge. The philosophy of Plato is to seek the soul of truth by the highest level of human’s knowledge, that is intellect. Intellect is the divine glance of the world of truth and human knows the world of ideas and Forms (Ideas) of Good. Dialectic is Plato’s philosophical method in order to perceive these worlds which possesses two intellectual-conceptual and intellectual-intuitive dimensions. Based on Plato’s philosophy, the author tries to explain the process of knowledge of Forms (Ideas) of Good so that it enjoys both an inner solidarity and a logical development.

There are some different approaches regarding semantics of divine attributes that try to speak about God meaninfully. Some of them are included of anthropomorphicism, negativism, symbolic language, analogical predicate, functional language and gradual predicate. From them, gradual predicate approach has more capabilities. Each of these approaches have their own function regarding recognizing divine attributes, but none of them are able to render the most complete knowledge about divine complicated attributes which can be contact and speak with such a God meaningfully. Combinatory approach, by using the merits of mentioned approaches and avoiding of their defects, tries to get more acceptable and logical understanding of divine attributesa and ways to speak with God. In fact, this approach tries to speak with divine attributes by considering dividing them into metaphysical and non-metaphysical (namely Humanly attributes), and dividing the latter ones into moral and non-moral (like Power and Knowledge) attributes, and also through dividing divine attributes to positive and negative, attributes of the essence and acts, and based on these divisions and people’s different stages of understanding and plurality of lingueistic function. Since people’s uniderstanding are not the same as researches and philosophers or gnostics which shows more necessity of combinatory approach.

Mulla Sadra and Hegel both regard sensory perception as the beginning of cognition. However, Mulla Sadra considers sensory, imaginary and rational stages for identification and considers the general perception after passing through the sensory and imaginary perception, that is, the general stage of cognition. But Hegel, from the outset, sees cognition through general concepts, and considers the conflict between detail and generality in this perception to be a factor in promoting perception to the next level. The comparison of sensory perception in Mulla Sadra and Hegel shows how accepting different foundations in the fields of logic, nature, and man can lead to the beginning of a single point to different ends.Sensory perception in Hegel is the beginning of the discovery of the conflict in human perceptual activity that ends in the unity of cognition and existence. But the advance of consciousness in Sadra's philosophy is in relation to man with reality and the passage of the lower existence to the higher and the higher transcendence and expansion of the existential level of the human being.

Explanation has a pivotal role in science and scientific research, based on theoretical sociological imagination, in epistemological area A, and in the light of paradigmatic assumptions. One of the most important levels of developmental development that has been overlooked in social and cultural research in Iran is the social epistemological levels that have been shaped by the research process steps. From the researcher-made breakdown of Iran's developmental issues into two theoretical and pragmatic levels, the present study has investigated its theoretical levels through a documentary, conceptual and logical approach, and through elemental analysis technique. Based on the results, one of the important steps at the theoretical level is the elemental separation of research components and elements. Based on exploratory studies, three types of important elements have been identified in epistemological studies of developmental developments: paradigmatic sensitive elements, epistemological sensitive elements, and historical sensitive elements. Since the research needed to be matched, it was necessary for the conceptualized elements to have a general, transactional character. Thus, in drawing on the conceptual model and paradigm of research, by referring to the semantic roots of concepts rather than to their paradigmatic and paradigmatic elements, the elements of humanity, secularity, liberality, rationality, and individuality, based on empirical evidence, Conceptualization is underway.

Studies have shown that an effective relationship between doctor and patient can increase compliance to treatment prescriptions and improve health outcome and both doctor and patient's satisfaction, decrease hospitalization time, treatment costs, medical and drug mistakes and complaints against doctors. Lack of proper relationship between doctor and patient leads misunderstanding, lack of complying from doctors' recommendation, lack of satisfaction and other undesirable outcomes. The type of this relationship depends on conditions of cooperation and doctors-patient's beliefs about the desirable position of responsibility and power. So far, several studies have been done on this topic. Although Martin Buber, twentieth century philosopher never wrote anything directly about medicine, his "dialogical philosophy", in particular the distinction he had between the two ways human beings could deal with, namely "I It relation", which requires an active, determining subject and a passive, determined object and "I Thou relationship", in which both parties are equal partners since both are simultaneously active and passive, we can learn much about the nature of doctor-patient relationship.

Abstract Aesthetics is the epistemological view of beauty and Pragmatic aesthetics is considered as a kind of aesthetics and a second-degree knowledge, which deals with art and beauty, and discusses its features from a philosophical knowledge perspective using a pragmatic method. Since pragmatism appeared in response to analytic philosophy, pragmatic aesthetics also makes sense only in contrast to analytic aesthetics. Functionalism, experimentalism, monism, and contextual relativity are among specific features of pragmatism, which are common in various branches of this school. Pragmatist aesthetics is also recognized and presented as against analytical aesthetics through these features. With the help of Richard Schusterman and based on the fundamental opposition of pragmatism and analytic philosophy, , this paper sought to pave the way for the discovery of the features of pragmatist aesthetics, and meanwhile, to distinguish, as the aestheticist in this field, a pragmatist philosopher who has had the most fruitful epistemological viewpoint.

The problem of mind-body is one of the most complex philosophical issues that, in the opinion of thinkers, if there is enough answer to this question, many complex and difficult philosophical issues will be solved, and human beings will achieve a comprehensive knowledge of the nature of mankind. In addition to the ontological and causal problems posed by the mind-body issue, this issue faces mental issues with important questions such as the nature of personal identity and its relation to the body and the brain. The inability of theories in explanation due to mental and physical characteristics has led some to raise the issue of returning to the Aristotelian interpretation of mind or soul as body form. In spite of the many criticisms that Aristotle's theory posed, how he faced the problem of mind-body it helps us, to answer questions about what constitutes mental phenomena and physical states, and how is the interaction of our body and mind. His views also have many strengths points in solving the problem of personal identity.

Solipsism by which that means ‘I am the only conscious mind’, epistemologically and ontologically offers that ‘everything has to exist and has to be known through my consciousness.’ This view received philosophical attention after considering thinking subject in Descartes’ doctrine and also in investigating the mind of the knower in Barkley, Kant and following German idealists such as Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. Therefore, Solipsism could be an important philosophical problem, since ‘I perceive the outer world and also the other minds’ through my conscious mind. Schopenhauer and Wittgenstein have considered this problem as ‘the border of the world for the knowing subject’ and signified it as ‘metaphysical I’. According to the Transcendental philosophy of Kant, Schopenhauer believes that the existence of the representative world depends on the mind of the knowing subject. However, the knower by itself is independent of time, space and causality. In a rare epistemological situation that Schopenhauer considers in aesthetical experience, the knower is in his true state. On the other hand, under the influence of Schopenhauer, Wittgenstein in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus introduces the role of the language in stating the border of the subject’s world; that is, the subjective experiences such as pain and emotion are perceived based on the knower’s mind. These subjective experiences also include the existence and mindfulness of others, too. Thus, the world is my world and as a conscious knower and as the conscious knower, I should exist in all the times to the end that the world exists.

controlled Intellectual virtues are stable traits of human ego, achievement of the knowledge of world, intellectual habits and attitudes., Virtue epistemologists believe that the epistemic status of a belief is dependent upon certain characteristics of the agent (intellectual virtues), and it is only through the application of intellectual virtues that truth is achieved in the epistemic process. However there is no consensus among virtue epistemologists regarding the general nature of the intellectual virtues. While some scholars such as Sosa consider these Virtues to be a kind of innater competence and cognitive talents, , other scholars such as Zagzebsky view intellectual virtues as intellectual character traits and a subset of moral virtues. Using an analytical approach this study set out to investigate the nature of intellectual virtues from both perspectives. While epistemic reliablism consider intellectual virtues as a kind of innate skill or cognitive faculty enabling individual to be epistemologically efficient, analyses suggest that so far as the concept of praise is deemed necessary in the epistemic analysis of the agents, and so far as the achievement and expansion of avirtue is considered out of control of the epistemic agent, it would be a better option to reject the understanding of intellectual virtues as skilles and innate cognitive faculties, and accept that the character- based approach provide a batter account of the nature of intellectual virtues by considering motive and reliability as two essential criteria for the presence of these virtues, that are admirable charater traits sufficiently by the agent.