جمال شیخی

bitumen seep of Ain Gir is one of the important natural resources of this plain. Archeological findings show that bitumen has been extracted and produced on a large scale in the Deh Luran plain due to its many useful features. Bitumen in Tepe Farukhabad has been one of the important items that was produced from the Farukh to Early Dynastic Phases. The process of bitumen production in Farukhabad can be divided into two stages: the first includes Farukh to Middle Uruk Phases, where bitumen production is at a low level and a small amount of it was exported, and an important part of it was consumed had a local. The second phase of the Late Uruk, Jemdet Nasr, and Early Dynastic Phases. At this stage, noticeable changes occurred in the process of production and use of bitumen. The production of bitumen and its export increased noticeably and its local consumption decreased drastically. At the same time, in the Late Uruk period, large non-native buildings were erected, which were apparently the office spaces of workshops related to the production and trade of bitumen. Also, during this period, the scope of settlement in Farukhabad reached its maximum expansion. It seems that the increase in the need for bitumen led to the establishment of new groups in Farukhabad and more efforts to produce and export it to the desired centers. Probably, in the recent stage, we are faced with non-native specialists who have settled in Farukhabad and managed bitumen export.

Due to the location of Maymeh II in the basin of Maymeh Dam of Dehloran in Ilam province and in order to ensure the existence of ancient layers, it was surveyed and excavated. Documentation, study of establishment, chronology, cultural sequence and function of the site were important goals and questions of this research. Descriptive-analytical and descriptive research method, comparative study and analysis of finds with using field studies (Survey, Trenching and Excavation) and library studies are the methods of research. All finds were obtained from surface survey and no cultural deposits or architectural remains were found in the excavated trenches. Due to the lack of evidence related to the surface finds in the trenches, it seems that this area with an approximate measurement of 45 hectares is an open Paleolithic area. The other finds, including a number of pottery sherds and part of a clay sickle, indicate that the site has been used as a seasonal settlement by nomadic groups based in the area during various historical periods. There is a sortly comprehensive cultural sequence in Dehloran from Neolithic period until Islamic period which identified and introduced. But the knowledge about Paleolithic period is insufficient and sites such as Maymeh could be fill this gap with its artefacts. .

Salinity is an environmental problem in the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. High amounts of salts like sodium chloride (NaCl) in the soils and water have destructive effects on yield of plants. The harmful effects of salinity on plant growth are related to the low osmotic potential of the soil solution (water stress), the nutritional imbalance, the specific ion effect (salt stress), or the combination of these factors. The relationship between salinity and plant mineral nutrition is complicated. Under salinity stress, occurs the sodium and chlorine accumulation, resulting in ionic imbalance and the deficiency symptoms of nutrients in plants. The sodium (Na+) competes with the uptake of potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) by plant, and the chlorine (Cl-) with the uptake of nitrates (NO3-), phosphates (PO43-) and sulfates (SO42-).
In order to evaluate the tolerance of spinach cv. “virofly” to salinity levels in application with different nitrogen rates, a greenhouse experiment was conducted as completely randomized design based on factorial arrangement with three replications at Shiraz University Agricultural Faculty. Treatments include four levels of salinity (without salinity, 1, 2 and 3 gr of sodium chloride per kg of soil, equivalents to 0.7, 4.5, 8 and 11.5 dS/m in saturated solution extract of soil, respectively), and five levels of nitrogen (unfertilized, 75, 150, 225 and 300 mg N/kg of soil) as urea source. Nitrogen treatments were applied in two installments in water soluble (half before planting and another half, 20 days after planting). In order to prevent sudden stress, saline treatments were applied gradually after complete plant establishment with irrigation water. The irrigation of the pots was carried out with distilled water and at field capacity. After 56 days of sowing, in every pot the spinach shoots were discarded near the surface of the soil and the required parameters were measured.
The application of 4.5 and 8 dS/m salinity had no significant effect (≤0.05) on the relative yield and spinach leaf area, but 11.5 dS/m salinity significantly (≤0.05) decreased relative yield and spinach leaf area compared to without salinity level, 4.5 and 8 dS/m. Nitrogen application (75 and 150 mg/kg of soil) alleviated negative effect of salinity on yield and leaf area. Application of 225 and 300 mg N/kg of soil with 11.5 dS/m salinity significantly decreased the relative yield of spinach. The highest and lowest shoot water content changes in salinity conditions were observed in no-nitrogen application and 150 mg N/kg application, respectively, which shows that the application of nitrogen in the medium level controls the water changes in the spinach plants. In this study, increasing the amount of nitrogen at all levels of salinity, elevated the shoot water content. The tolerant plant species in the face of environmental stresses maintain the water content of their cells in the higher levels. Therefore, it can be said that the maintenance of high leaf water content is an important mechanism for tolerance to salinity, and the cultivars that can hold more water in their leaves under stress conditions, will have more tolerance to salinity stress. Linear regression (R2 = 0.8198) showed that in the salinity levels of 4.5 to 11.5 dS/m, there is a negative relationship between the yield and the chlorine to nitrogen ratio (Cl/N) of spinach shoots, so that with increasing Cl/N, the spinach shoot yield decreased by gradient of -3.077. Application of nitrogen up to 225 mg/kg of soil gradually reduced the ratio of K/Na, Ca/Na and Mg/Na, however, the application of 300 mg N/kg of soil had no significant effect on these ratios. The application of different levels of salinity gradually reduced the K/Na, Ca/Na and Mg/Na ratio.
The threshold of salinity of spinach cv. “virofly” was about 8 dS/m in our study, this was above the threshold mentioned (2 dS/m) for spinach in most sources. The application of nitrogen in medium level as urea can improve the negative effects of salinity in spinach but intensive nitrogen fertilization may increase the negative effects of salinity on plant yields.

The study was conducted to investigate the effect of biological fertilizer and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in four levels (without biological fertilizer, Rhizophagus irregularis, Funneliformis mosseae and vermicompost) on growth and shoot mineral nutrients composition of two strawberry cultivars (Parus and Kurdistan) in factorial experiment based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications in greenhouse conditions. The results showed that the application of vermicompost and AM fungi significantly increased the shoot dry weight of strawberry in comparison to control but there was not a significant difference between two species of AM fungi. Total uptake of nutrients was significantly increased by inoculation of strawberry with AM fungi in comparison to the control but inoculation did not leave significance effect on shoot nutrients concentration. Vermicompost application significantly enhanced the uptake and concentration of phosphorus, potassium, iron, zinc, and copper compared to control. Dry weight, zinc concentration and uptake, phosphorus, manganese and copper uptake in shoot of Kurdistan cultivar were significantly higher than Parus cultivar but there was not a significant difference between the cultivars in root colonization. Mycorrhizal dependence (Md) percentage by Rhizophagus irregularis was significantly higher in Parus cultivar than Kurdistan cultivar but Md (%) by Funneliformis mosseae in Kurdistan cultivar was higher than Parus cultivar. In conclusion, application of biological fertilizers will increase the growth of strawberry plant through an increased nutrient uptake, in which the role of vermicompost is more pronounced than that of AM fungi due perhaps to the presence of nutrients and useful soil organisms.

Low nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is a global problem in crop production, and agriculture of Iran is not exempt in this regard. Nitrogen (N) fertilizers as a source of nitrogen can be very effective in water, soil and air environmental pollution. Nitrification is a key process in agricultural ecosystems since it results in changes of ammonium to nitrate and eventually loss of considerable amounts of soil nitrogen through leaching and denitrification. The application of nitrification inhibitors (NI) together with nitrogen fertilizers is a strategy to reduce N losses. Thus, the objective of this study were to evaluate the effect of inhibitor 3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) on nitrification rates and nitrification inhibition percentage in some soils of Iran containing representing differences in organic matter content and texture.

An incubation experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of DMPP on nitrate and ammonium concentration changes in different times and abundance of ammonium (AOB) and nitrite (NOB) oxidizer bacteria in five soils with different texture and organic carbon (O.C). The treatments of experiment included NI at three levels (without N and NI, 200 mg/kg N as ammonium sulfate without NI, and 200 mg/kg N as ammonium sulfate containing 0.8 % NI), five soil types (sandy loam 1 with 0.58% O.C, sandy loam 2 with 0.3% O.C, loam with 0.73% O.C, clay loam with 0.87% O.C, clay with 1.47% O.C), and five sampling times (0, 14, 28, 42, and 56 day).

The results showed that application of N containing DMPP compared to N without DMPP in all soils had significant effect (P<0.001) on reducing nitrification, which was reduced 44.7% on average. DMPP efficiency on nitrification inhibition in experimented soils had significant difference, indicating that nitrification occurs rapidly in soils containing more clay and O.C compared to soils with more sand and low O.C. Nitrification inhibition percentage after 56 day incubation in SL1, SL2, and L were 57%, 46%, and 12%, but in two other soils were about zero. Also there were a positive significant correlation between abundance of AOB and NOB with nitrate concentration (r = 0.6), O.C content (r = 0.9), and total soil N (r = 0.9).

soil nitrification rate are different under influence of factors like soil textural properties and soil O.C content, and DMPP efficiency had inverse relationship with some soil properties including clay%, O.C content, and nitrifier bacterial population. Further these properties can be used in predicting the short term effects of inhibitors.

Application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and vermicompost in agriculture as promoting factors to improve the soil quality and plant nutrition, plant growth and yield, is considered as an important and valuable findings in soil fertility and plant nutrition. In order to study the effect of vermicompost and Rhizophagus irregularis fungi on some growth and nutritional responses of two wheat cultivars, a factorial experiment was conducted in completely randomized design (CRD) in greenhouse conditions. Treatments were included: two levels of Rhizophagus irregularis fungi (with and without fungi), two levels of vermicompost (with and without) and two wheat cultivars (Bahar and Shiraz). The results showed that the application of vermicompost increased the mean grain and straw yields of wheat cultivars by 57.8% and 65.6%, respectively, compared to the control. So that, grain and straw yields, total uptake of P, concentration and total uptake of N, total uptake of K and the percentage of root colonization in Bahar cultivar were significantly higher than Shiraz cultivar. The same results obtained in Rhizophagus irregularis fungi treatment. Remarkable increase was observed in the concentration and total uptake of P and N in straw for Bahar cultivar compared to the control. Whereas there is no significant effect on Shiraz cultivar. Rhizophagus irregularis fungi also induced higher root colonization for Bahar cultivar (35.48% increase) compared to Shiraz cultivar. In general, Bahar cultivar was superior to Shiraz cultivar both in term of shoot yield and response to vermicompost and fungi application.

Chickpea (Cicer arientinum L.) is one of the Leguminosae family members that has symbiotic ability with Mesorhizobium ciceri bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. To evaluate the effect of AM fungi (Glomus mosseae, Glomus intraradices) and Mesorhizobium ciceri bacteria at three soil moisture levels [28% (field capacity), 15% (-5 bar suction) and 9% (-10 bar suction)] on nutrients concentration of roots, areal parts of chickpea and post-harvest soil, a greenhouse factorial experiment was conducted, arranged as a completely randomized design, in sterilized soil. Results showed that moisture content had significant effect on potassium (K) concentration of roots, areal parts and post-harvest soil; the highest positive effect of moisture was at field capacity level. Rhizobium bacteria had significant effect on concentration of K and nitrogen (N) of the roots, phosphorus (P) of the areal parts, and post-harvest iron (Fe) concentration in the soil. AM fungi had significant effect on root P concentration of the roots; the highest effect was related to Glomus mosseae. Interaction of moisture and AM fungi was significant on concentration of root P and areal parts manganese (Mn); the highest effect was related to Glomus mosseae treatment at field capacity moisture level. Interaction of moisture and rhizobium bacteria was significant on concentration of root N and P, and areal parts Mn and Fe; the highest effect was related to rhizobium treatment at field capacity moistute level. Interaction of AM fungi and rhizobium bacteria was significant on root P concentration; the highest effect was related to rhizobium and Glomus mosseae treatment. The highest root N concentration was related to combination of AM fungi and inoculation with rhizobium treatment at field capacity moisture level.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and vermicompost on biological yield، stem height، spike length، and concentration and uptake of zinc (Zn)، iron (Fe)، manganese (Mn) and copper (Cu) in straw of two wheat cultivars as a factorial experiment arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications under greenhouse conditions. Treatments included two levels of AMF (with and without AMF)، two levels of vermicompost (0 and 1%، w/w)، and two wheat cultivars (Shiraz and Bahar). Results showed that maximum biological yield، stem height and spike length obtained by application of vermicompost (without AMF) in Bahar cultivar. Biological yield، spike length، Zn and Mn concentrations، and total uptake of Zn، Fe، Mn and Cu significantly affected by vermicompost application. Maximum concentration and uptake of Zn observed in AMF treatments (without vermicompost) in Bahar cultivar. Mn uptake was increased when vermicompost and AMF were applied to soil samples but it was decreased when AMF was not applied. Biological yield، stem height، concentration and uptake of Zn and Mn were higher in Bahar cultivar compared to Shiraz cultivar. It might be concluded that biological fertilizers increased the wheat yield which is a strategic product. Yield and micronutrients uptake in Bahar cultivar were higher than Shiraz ones.

A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of vermicompost and sodium chloride (NaCl) on growth of spinach cv. Viroflay and some chemical properties of post-harvest soil. The greenhouse experiment was factorial, arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments included three vermicompost levels (0, 1 and 2% w/w) and four salinity levels (0, 1, 2 and 3 gr NaCl/kg soil, equivalent to 0.7, 4.5, 8 and 11.5 dS/m, respectively). The highest relative yield of spinach shoots was obtained by application of 10% vermicompost, whereas, application of NaCl had no significant effect on relative yield of spinach shoots. Application of vermicompost increased mean leaf area and chlorophyll of shoots, organic matter (OM), electrical conductivity (EC), total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) of post-harvest soil. Addition of NaCl increased EC, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na and Cl of post-harvest soil, but had no significant effect on leaf area and chlorophyll content of shoots, OM and N of post-harvest soil. Addition of vermicompost had positive effect on spinach growth and plant nutrients availability in post-harvest soil. However, increased soil salinity, especially when high level of vermicompost is applied, should be considered. Application of NaCl, even up to the salinity of 11.5 dS/m, didn’t decrease significantly the spinach yield. Therefore, Viroflay cultivar could be introduced as a relatively resistant to salinity; although, before any recommendations, it is needed to do further experiments, especially under field conditions, to confirm the results of this study

A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of vermicompost and nitrogen (N) on growth, nutrient concentration and uptake of N, phosphorus (P), potassium (K), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu) in sunflower shoots as a factorial experiment arranged in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications under greenhouse conditions. Treatments included three levels of vermicompost (0, 2.5, and 5 % by w/w) and three N levels (0, 90, and 180 mg kg-1) as urea. Application of 2.5% vermicompost significantly increased the average fresh and dry weights, and uptake of K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu of shoots as compared when no vermicompost was applied, but decreased Zn and Cu concentrations. Application of 90 mg N, increased fresh and dry weights, and concentration of N, Zn, and Mn, total uptake of N, P, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu in sunflower shoots, but decreased P concentration. Application of 180 mg N increased total N uptake than that of 90 mg N kg-1 treatment. Combination of 2.5% vermicompost with 90 mg N, significantly (p<0.05) increased dry matter yield of sunflower as compared to 2.5% vermicompost without N treatment

To evaluate the effect of salinity (S) and vermicompost (V) on yield and concentration of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) of spinach shoots cv. Virofly, a pot experiment was conducted in greenhouse, and arranged as factorial in a completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments included three V levels (0, 1 and 2%, w/w) and four S levels (0, 1, 2 and 3 g NaCl per kg soil). Electrical conductivity of the soil for these four S levels was 0.7, 4.5, 8 and 11.5 dS/m, respectively. Results showed that the highest yield of spinach shoots was obtained in 10% V treatment. Application of sodium chloride (NaCl) had no significant effect on shoot yield. Therefore, under the present experimental conditions, S threshold level for "Viroflay" cultivar was at least 11.5 dS/m, which is much higher than the level reported in literature for spinach (2 dS/m). Application of V increased concentration of N, P, K, Fe and Mg in spinach shoots, but decreased concentration of Mn, Zn, Cu, Ca, Na and Cl. Application of NaCl had no significant effect on the concentration of P, Fe, Mn, Ca and Mg. But, with the addition of NaCl, concentration of N, Zn, Cu, Na and Cl was increased in spinach shoots. In the absence of NaCl, application of V had no significant effect on Na concentration, but increased Cl concentration. Whereas, at 3 g NaCl level, application of V significantly decreased Na and Cl concentrations of shoots, compared to the application of NaCl alone. Therefore, application of V not only can increase plant growth, but also could be an effective solution to mitigate the negative effects of high concentrations of Na and Cl on growth of spinach, cv. Virofly, in saline soils.

A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of nitrogen (N) and salinity on dry matter yield, N uptake, nitrate (NO3-) concentration, agronomic efficiency (AE), physiologic efficiency (PE), apparent nitrogen recovery (ANR) and chlorophyll content of spinach shoots (cv. Viroflay), and also total N, NO3-N and electrical conductivity of post-harvest soil. The experiment was factorial, arranged as a completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments included five N rates (0, 75, 150, 225, and 300 mg/kg soil, as urea) and four salinity levels (0, 1, 2 and 3 g NaCl per kg soil). Results showed that application of 1 and 2 g NaCl had no significant effect on shoot yield of spinach. But application of 3 g NaCl significantly decreased shoot yield. Addition of salinity had no significant effect on plant NO3− concentration, leaf chlorophyll readings, AE and ANR of shoots, and total N of post-harvest soil; but reduced PE. Increasing N rate increased yield, total N uptake and chlorophyll readings of shoots, and total N of post-harvest soil: but reduced AE and PE. Application of high N level intensified the negative effects of 3 g NaCl salinity on reduction of spinach shoot's yield. Under the present experimental conditions, salinity tolerance level of Viroflay cultivar was higher than 8 dS/m, which is much more than the level reported in most references for spinach (2 dS/m). Application of 225 mg N (without salinity application) was the best N level for dry matter yield of spinach.