حسن فرح بخش

This research investigates the effects of brassinosteroid and melatonin foliar applications on quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) subjected to drought stress. As a highly nutritious new plant, quinoa is increasingly valued for its tolerance in arid conditions like our country. However, drought stress or irrigation deficit significantly impairs its growth and biochemical composition. Brassinosteroids and melatonin as plant growth regulators are known to enhance plant tolerance to various abiotic stresses, including drought, by modulating physiological and biochemical pathways. This research aims to elucidate how these compounds influence key growth indices, such as plant height, leaf area, biomass, harvest index and as well as biochemical characteristics like soluble carbohydrate, and proline accumulation in quinoa growing under drought stress. By understanding these effects, the study seeks to provide insights into potential agronomic practices to improve quinoa productivity and stress resilience under water-limited conditions.

The experiment, conducted at Shahid Bahonar university of Kerman during 2020 and 2021 cropping seasons, used a split-plot layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Main plots consisted of three irrigation levels (100%, 75%, and 50% of field capacity), and sub-plots included five foliar application treatments (control, 0.25 and 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid, and 0.5 and 1 micromolar melatonin). Soil sampling and nutrient adjustments were made before planting. Trifluralin herbicide was used for weed control, and planting occurred on August 1st with 40 cm row spacing and 3-meter row lengths, followed by immediate irrigation. Foliar applications were conducted at the start of flowering and a week later, early in the morning before sunrise. Water stress treatments began after the first foliar application. Leaf area index (LAI) and Crop Growth Rate (CGR) were measured at the beginning of flowering and one week later, using Gardner's equations. Chlorophyll fluorescence was assessed via the saturation pulse method to determine the maximum quantum yield of photosystem II. Proline and soluble sugars measurements were taken from young leaves post-stress treatment. For morphological trait assessment, including plant height, leaf area, dry weight of aerial parts, and yield components, five plants were randomly sampled from each plot. Biological yield, harvest index, and grain yield were calculated by harvesting plants from the middle four rows, each 2 meters long. Data analysis was performed using SAS v. 9.1, with mean comparisons conducted using Duncan's multiple range test at the 5% probability level.

The results showed that foliar application of plant growth regulators (PGR) increased plant height across all irrigation levels. The greatest height, 150.5 cm, was observed with 0.5 micromolar melatonin and 100% field capacity irrigation. Additionally, 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid with irrigation with 75% of field capacity increased plant height by 11.1% compared to the control at the same irrigation level, with a similar trend under severe drought stress. Increased drought stress reduced the leaf area index (LAI) by 8.37% and 31.6% compared to normal irrigation. The highest concentration of brassinosteroids increased the crop growth rate (CGR) at all irrigation levels (4.8, 4.4 and %16.8 in normal, mild and severe drought stress conditions respectively, but thousand grain weight decreased to %93.3 and %62 of control with rising drought stress. Brassinosteroids were more effective than melatonin in enhancing thousand grain weight. Both brassinosteroid and melatonin applications reduced chlorophyll fluorescence under mild and severe drought stress compared to controls. Soluble carbohydrates content increased by 50.4% at 50% field capacity irrigation compared to normal irrigation. Under mild stress, only brassinosteroid significantly increased proline content, with the highest level (3.19 µmol g-1) at the highest concentration. The highest dry weight, harvest index, and grain yield were achieved with 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid under mild and severe stress. Brassinosteroids, as new phytohormones, are promising for enhancing crop productivity under stress and non-stress conditions.

Reduction in irrigation from 100% field capacity or increased drought stress led to decreased plant height, growth rate, leaf area index, thousand grain weight, and harvest index, while chlorophyll fluorescence, proline content, and soluble carbohydrates increased. Despite the increases in these two latter mentioned traits, plant dry weight and grain yield decreased under drought stress. The application of brassinosteroids and melatonin improved plant traits, with 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid being particularly more effective, especially under mild and severe stress. This treatment mitigated drought's negative effects, suggesting its potential to enhance agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid regions.

Soil contamination with heavy metals is one of the most important challenges related to the protection of water and soil resources. Heavy metals are metals that have a density of more than 5 grams per cubic centimeter. Among heavy metals, cadmium is of special importance due to its high solubility in water and quick and easy absorption by the plant root system. This element has been introduced as the fourth dangerous element for vascular plants (Kok et al., 2010). By accumulating in the root environment, cadmium can cause a decrease in growth, respiration, damage to the mechanisms involved in photosynthesis, and inhibit the activity of enzymes and the lack of nitrogen and phosphorus in the plant. Borage (Borago officinalis L.) is a valuable annual medicinal herb suitable for cultivation in many countries, including Iran. Borage (Borago officinalis L.) is considered as a native of both Europe and Asia. Several species around the globe fall under the denomination of “borage”. The presence of the highest γ-linolenic acid content in the seeds of borage makes borage distinctively important mainly for the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical research. γ-Linolenic acid is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid which cannot be synthesized in the body and hence falls into the category of essential fatty acids (Evesh et al., 2019). The present study was carried out with the aim of investigating the physiologic and biochemical responses of the medicinal plant Borage (Borago officinalis L.) to cadmium stress.

This experiment was conducted in the form of a completely random design in the greenhouse of Shahid Bahnar University, Bardsir College of Agriculture, Shahid Bahnar University, Kerman, at an average temperature of 25 degrees Celsius during the day and 20 degrees Celsius during the night, with a relative humidity of 60%. First, concentrations of cadmium (0, 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, 120, 160 mg kg-1) were prepared using cadmium chloride (Merck company) and the soil was uniformly contaminated with cadmium. The contaminated soil was incubated under constant humidity and temperature conditions for 30 days and then poured into pots with a capacity of 3 kg of soil. Plant seeds were disinfected with alcohol and 5% sodium hypochlorite solution and immediately washed several times with distilled water. Five seeds were planted in the pots containing the studied treatments and at a depth of 2 to 3 cm. Two months after planting, when the plant was in the 50% flowering stage, the growth and performance characteristics of the plant including the number of flowers, number of leaves, branch length, root length, shoot weight, root weight, flower weight were measured. Some biochemical characteristics (catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacyl peroxidase, protein, proline and photosynthetic pigments) were measured.

The studied treatments significantly (p≤0.01) affected the biochemical, physiologic and performance characteristics of European borage. Increasing the concentration of cadmium had an inhibitory effect on the growth parameters of the plant, and this effect was clearly evident in pollution above 80 mg kg-1. Number of flowers, number of leaves, flower weight, root weight, total weight, root length and branch length decreased significantly with increasing cadmium concentration. The flowering of the plant was 71% at the pollution level of 120 mg per kilogram. At this level of pollution, the root weight was reduced by 69.9%. The weight of aerial parts decreased by 59.7% at the pollution level of 160 mg kg-1. The activity of ascorbate peroxidase enzyme increased up to 20 mg kg-1 treatment and after that the activity of ascorbate peroxidase enzyme decreased with the increase of cadmium concentration. Proline concentration increased with increasing cadmium contamination. Photosynthetic pigments also decreased in high concentrations of cadmium. The cause of the adverse effects of cadmium on plants in contaminated soils can be attributed to more absorption of cadmium by the plant and growth disturbance caused by cadmium toxicity in the plant, reduction of growth rate, reduction of water absorption and absorption of other ions affecting the activities plant growth (Veselov et al., 2003), the reduction of cytokinin hormone activity, which has a significant effect on cell proliferation and growth, or the negative effect of cadmium on energy production in mitochondria was attributed (Fotohi et al., 2011). Cadmium causes disturbances in the overall metabolism of cells. (Xie et al., 2021) Cadmium toxicity in plants can lead to negative effects on the photosynthesis process. This action takes place through damage to some photosynthetic enzymes, especially those involved in the Kelvin cycle and chlorophyll biosynthesis (Mishra et al., 2006).

The results showed that the yield of European borage was not affected by cadmium up to a concentration of 1.25 mg kg-1. The activity of antioxidant enzymes increased up to the treatment of 20 mg kg-1 and then decreased with increasing cadmium concentration, which indicates oxidative stress. Photosynthetic pigments and chlorophyll fluorescence index decreased with increasing cadmium concentration. Considering the tolerance and resistance of some medicinal plants to the conditions in soils contaminated with heavy metals, it is possible to use the cultivation of some medicinal plants as a solution for the management and exploitation of lands that have medium contamination with heavy metals. Considering the number of flowers, flower durability and high yield, the European borage plant can be a suitable candidate for cultivation in polluted areas, of course, additional studies with the approach of reducing the adverse effects of stress and reducing the concentration of cadmium element in the soil are needed.

Agriculture is a cornerstone of many developing economies, providing food, income, and employment for millions of people. It is also projected to play a vital role in feeding a global population of 9.1 billion people by 2050. However, there are growing concerns about the environmental impact of agriculture, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions like Iran. Managing water and fertilizer usage in agriculture is crucial to ensuring food security and sustainability. However, conducting field experiments to assess the interaction of all factors involved is expensive and time-consuming. This research focuses on optimizing maize production in Kerman province, a region where maize is a major crop. The research is motivated by the need to improve resource management in Iran, where water and fertilizer resources are limited. The APSIM model is used to determine the best management scenario for maize production in Kerman province. APSIM is a crop growth simulation model that can be used to predict the impact of different management practices on crop yield, water use efficiency, and nutrient use efficiency. The use of APSIM in this research provides a cost-effective and time-efficient alternative to conducting extensive field experiments. The results of this research will contribute to the development of sustainable and efficient agricultural practices in Kerman province and similar regions. These regions are characterized by resource constraints, such as limited water and fertilizer availability. The research aimed to simulate the effect of management parameters (planting date and irrigation) on Crop yield and subsequently achieve the optimal management scenario.

The APSIM model was used for simulation in three regions of Bardsir (temperate to cold climate), Jiroft (hot and humid climate), and Orzuye (hot and dry climate). The model requires four series of data: climate, soil, management, and crop data. The required climate data (from 1998 to 2018) including daily maximum and minimum temperatures, length of sunny hours, and daily precipitation were collected and prepared from the synoptic weather stations of the three mentioned regions.The management data set for each of the study regions was prepared in the form of questionnaires and field research from experts of the Agricultural Jihad Organization, the Agricultural Research Center Organization, and prominent farmers in those regions. The crop data includes the plant genetic coefficients of the maize single cross hybrid 704, which were obtained from the calibration of the APSIM model. To optimize planting date and irrigation management in the studied areas, different planting and irrigation date treatments were investigated. In this research, planting date treatments included the conventional planting date of the region, 20 days before the conventional planting date (as early planting date), and 20 days after the conventional planting date (as late planting date). Irrigation treatments included the usual number of irrigations in the region (13 irrigations), less irrigation (11 irrigations), and more irrigation (15 irrigations).

Our results showed that the model successfully simulated maize phenology, especially maturity date, with high accuracy for all fertilizer amounts tested. The model performance in predicting biomass under different nitrogen treatments was also satisfactory, with a minimal difference between observed data and model results. The nRMSE of grain yield in the calibration stage was 11.2% and in the validation stage was 9%. The nRMSE for calibration of the biological yield of SC 704 was 14.8% and for validation was 13.9%. Also, the model was able to simulate phenology with very high accuracy (especially the days to maturity). Overall, the nRMSE of days to flowering was less than 10% and for the days to maturity was less than 5%. Late planting dates consistently showed better performance across regions and irrigation treatments, resulting in significantly increased grain yield compared to conventional and early planting dates. The highest seed yield was obtained with 15 times of irrigation, among the various irrigation treatments. Late planting combined with 15 times of irrigation yielded the best results in Kerman province, particularly in Bardsir, with a yield of 9300 kg ha-1. Optimal moisture and air conditions, along with the cultivation of a late-maturing variety, contributed to the higher seed yield. These findings are consistent with previous research that has confirmed the positive impact of late planting and extended ripening periods on maize yield.

Our results showed that the model simulates the growth and yield of single cross 704 corn in Kerman province well, even after 20 days of late planting. Long-term simulation experiments showed that maize grain yield varied depending on the region, with the highest yield in Bardsir (8317 kg ha-1) and the lowest yield in Jiroft (4735 kg ha-1). The optimum maize grain yield (8872.8 kg ha-1) was obtained by the interaction effect of late planting date and 15 times of irrigation.

Borage (Borago officinalis L.) is a valuable annual medicinal herb suitable for cultivation in many countries, including Iran. Borage is considered as a native of both Europe and Asia. Several species around the world fall under the denomination of “borage”. The presence of the γ-linolenic acid in the seeds of borage makes borage distinctively important mainly for the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical research. γ-Linolenic acid is an omega -6 polyunsaturated fatty acid which cannot be synthesized in the body and hence falls into the category of essential fatty acids (Evesh et al., 2019).
 Chemical fertilizer is an indispensable abiotic factor in agricultural production, especially nitrogen fertilizer. However, in order to improve the yield, people fertilize a lot, which not only wastes resources, but also brings a series of serious problems to the environment, such as greenhouse gas emissions, soil fertility degradation and water resources pollution. Therefore, developing new fertilizers, improving crop nutrient utilization efficiency, replacing chemical fertilizers and reducing environmental pollution is an important direction of agricultural sustainable developme (Zhang et al ., 2020).
Biochar is a carbon rich product formed by pyrolysis of agricultural and forestry wastes under limited air availability. It is generally alkaline in nature, with the characteristics of rich carbon content, large specific surface area and strong adsorption. Biochar addition can reduce soil bulk density and increase porosity, pH, water holding capacity and nutrient content. Additionally, the unique physical properties of biochar can also promote the colonization and growth of some specific microorganisms, which may participate in the mineralization of biochar and promote nutrient cycling. Therefore, biochar has been widely used on improving soil quality and increasing crop productivity. Biochar has a positive effect on root structure and nutrient absorption of plant. Several studies have shown biochar can significantly increase the root length, root biomass, root surface area and specific root length. The study also found that biochar significantly increased the number of plant root tips, the most active part of root, and then increased the ability of plants to absorb nutrients from soil (Zhang et al, 2020).
 
In order to evaluate the effect of damask rose waste (DRW), walnut green skin waste (WGW) and cow manure biochars on biochemical, physiological and yield characteristics of European borage, an experiment was carried out based on a completely randomized design at the greenhouse conditions in Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. The experimental treatments contain: without of biochar (control), biochars of cow manure (0.75%, 1.25%, 2.5% and 5% w/w), walnut green skin biochar (WGW) (0.75%, 1.25%, 2.5% and 5% w/w) and damask rose waste biochar (DRW) (0.75, 1.25, 2.5 and 5% w/w). The physicochemical properties of the biochars and soil were analyzed. Five seeds were planted in three-kilogram pots at a depth of 1.5 to 2 cm. The greenhouse was maintained at an average temperature of 25 °C during the day and 20 °C at night, with a relative humidity level of 60%. Upon concluding the experiment, various biochemical, physiological, and functional characteristics of European borage were assessed and measured.
 
The results showed that DRW (60%) and WGW (13%) biochars had the highest and lowest amount of stable organic carbon, respectively. The investigated treatments significantly (p≤ 0.01) affected the biochemical, physiological and performance traits of European borage. Application of DRW and manure biochars caused a significant (p ≤ 0.01) increase in yield and photosynthetic pigments of European borage compared to the control. Applying WGW biochar at the level of 2.5% increased the shoot dry weight of the plant by 119% compared to the control treatment. Application of 1.25% of cow manure biochar also increased the shoot dry weight by 29.7%. WGW biochar applying not only had no positive effect on the growth and yield of the European borage, but also lead the decreasing growth and prevent flower production of borage. The highest CAT activity related to applying 2.5% of DRW biochar and 1.25% of manure biochar. Application of WGW in concentration of 0.75% significantly increased the proline contents. Using biochar improves soil fertility.
 
In general, applying DRW biochar in concentration of 2.5% and cow manure biochar in concentration of 1.25% were the most suitable treatments.

Early heading as an adaptation mechanism for end season heat and drought stress is an important goal in wheat breeding programs. Photoperiod (Ppd) and vernalization (Vrn) are the most important genes controlling early heading in bread wheat. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of Ppd and Vrn genes on early heading, grain yield and important agronomic traits in BC4F2 generation of Roshan (recurrent parent) and Excalibur backcross.

A BC4F2 population resulted from backcross of Roshan and Excalibur was generated in Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. In this breeding program, early heading was transferred from Excalibur cultivar to Roshan (recurrent parent). This population, including 175 BC4F2 progenies, and their parents were cultivated in the research field of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in the 2019-2020 growing season. The progenies were genotyping using specific markers Vrn-B1, Vrn-D1 and Ppd-D1. In this population, early heading, grain yield and important agronomic traits were evaluated.

Excalibur and Roshan had Ppd-D1a, and Ppd-D1b alleles, respectively. The frequency of Ppd-D1a/Ppd-D1a and heterozygous genotypes in the evaluated population were 27.33% and 415%, respectively. In this population, Ppd-D1a/Ppd-D1a, which is photoperiod insensitive genotype, was 6 and 4 days earlier heading than Ppd-D1b/Ppd-D1b and Ppd-D1a/Ppd-D1b genotypes, respectively. There was no allelic diversity between progeny for Vrn-1 locus. Early heading had a significant negative correlation with grain yield, 1000-grain weight, spikes number and grains number per spike.

The results confirm the importance of Ppd-D1a gene in the early heading, grain yield and yield components. Selection for early heading increased grain yield, 1000-grain weight, spikes number, biological yield, stover biomass at harvest and spikes dry weight. Due to the large and significant effect of Ppd-D1a gene on grain yield and yield components, we recommend marker assisted selection of this gene in wheat breeding programs. Phenotypic selection was performed before BC4F2 generation and Vrn gene diversity was established in the population.

To investigate the effects of chitosan foliar application on the various physiological and biochemical (proline, protein, antioxidant enzymes, and percentage and essential oil yield) characteristics and dry matter yield of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) under drought stress conditions, a split-plot experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications in Lalehzar city, Bardsir county, Kerman province in 2019. The drought stress at four levels (35, 50, 65, and 80% of available moisture discharge) and the chitosan concentration at five levels (0, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 gram chitosan per liter of acetic acid) were considered as the main and sub plots, respectively. The results showed that the drought stress increased proline, antioxidant enzymes, and percentage and essential oil yield and decreased the dry matter yield significantly. The proline, antioxidant enzymes, dry matter yield, and essential oil percentage increased significantly with increasing the chitosan concentration, which resulted in a significant increase in the essential oil yield as the most important quality index in thyme. The protein and gayacol peroxidase enzyme were not affected by chitosan foliar application. In general, the results of this research showed that the higher chitosan concentrations (1.5 gram chitosan per liter of acetic acid) were more effective in ameliorating the damages induced by the drought stress and achieving the higher yield.

Chickpea is one of the most important protein producing crops in the world and drought is the greatest limiting factor for its growth. In addition, chickpea plays crucial role in soil fertility because of the nitrogen fixation in its roots. The chickpea is mostly grown in semi-arid and arid zones or in the rain fed condition. Hence, more than 90% of chickpea growing area is drought prone. Under such conditions, usually the last part of reproductive phase of chickpea, faces water deficiency. Generally terminal drought stress is responsible for reduction in yield and biomass as well as physiological traits such as CO2 assimilation, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, membrane stability index (MSI) and water use efficiency (WUE). In this condition, stress avoidance ability, tolerance or stress escape is essential for drought resistance. Significant genetic variation exists in chickpea germplasms for terminal drought stress. Nowadays, different breeding methods used for improving chickpea drought tolerance such as Marker assisted selection, omics and mutation breeding. Besides these techniques, enough information about traits affected by drought stress, their genetic parameters and relationships with economic yield is necessary for breeding programs.
 

According to estimation of genetic variation, heritability and relationships between agronomic, morphological and physiological traits, 64 Kabuli type chickpea genotypes were sown under two normal and terminal drought conditions in two-separated 8×8 lattice design in Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman during 2015-2016 growing season. Normal irrigation applied until flowering stage. Water withdrawing was done at 50% of flowering stage. Agronomic traits such as days to secondary branch, days to flowering, days to maturity, plant height, leaflet numbers, seed yield, yield components, harvest index, seed filling period, seed filling rate measured. Chlorophyll content measured by the SPAD chlorophyll meter. Stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis were measured by CI-340 Handheld Photosynthesis System apparatus from Bio-Science Company. Data was analyzed by SPSS ver. 22. Estimation of genetic parameters and path analysis were performed for all significant traits in both normal and terminal drought stress.
 

Analysis of variance for genotypes determined significant differences for day to secondary branch, day to flowering, day to pod setting, 100 seed weight and seed filling period in normal condition. Genotypes showed significant difference for all traits except number of seeds per pod, biological yield, seed filling rate and the SPAD index in stress condition. According to the results of genetic parameter estimation for normal condition the highest amount of CVg was belonged to seed filling period, leaflet number and 100 seed weight, which were 11.1, 9.13 and 8.4, respectively. The highest amount of heritability in normal condition also was belonged to days to flowering and days to secondary branch, which were 68.47 and 68.44, respectively. The highest amount of CVg obtained in terminal drought condition for stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis, were 33.14 and 31.76 respectively. Stomatal limitation and reduction in photosynthesis are the most important factors for loss of yield during stress condition. Therefore, the usage of mentioned genetic diversity may improve future breeding program for drought condition. However, marker assisted selection methods might be helpful, according to moderate heritability of these traits (29.58 and 24.08, respectively). Result of path analysis in normal condition determined that seed-filing period had the most magnitude direct effect (0.527) and the large indirect effect (0.365) via number of seeds per plant on seed yield. The highest amount of direct effect (0.702) on seed yield belonged to rate of filling in drought condition as well. It seems that during terminal progressive drought stress, the ability of filling the seed rapidly is the key trait for tolerant genotypes according to limitation in the seeds filling period.
 

Terminal drought stress is one of two reasonable factors reducing chickpea yield. The result of analysis of variance for genotypes indicated significant differences for days to secondary branch, days to flowering, days to pod setting, 100 seed weight and seed filling period in normal condition. In addition to mentioned traits, significant difference was achieved for days to maturity, seed yield, and number of pods per plant, harvest index, net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. The highest amount of CVg belonged to seed filling period, leaflet number and 100 seed weight. However, highest CVg belonged to stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis in drought stress condition. In practice, relatively high genetic variation for these traits might be a new insight for improving drought tolerance in chickpea. The high direct and indirect effects of seed filling rate on seed yield in path analysis suggested a strong relationship between these characters. Moreover, the magnitudes of both direct and indirect effect of seed filling rate via number of seed per plant were increased during stress condition. According to the results, some physiological traits such as stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis and seed filling rate might be valuable in future breeding programs.

Higher plants are self-supporting organisms that can build their organic molecular compounds from mineral nutrients absorbed from the environment. Therefore, sufficient access to the optimum level of nutrients in the environment is very important. The main objective of this study was to determine the nutritional requirements of different ecotypes of henna (Lowsonia inermis L.) as a medicinal- industrial plant (Bam, Shahdad and Roodbar) based on nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N: K: P, 0: 0: 0, 100: 50: 50 , 200: 100: 100, 300: 200: 150 Kg ha-1) in Kerman climatological condition. The results showed that the interaction of ecotype × fertilizer was significant only for leaf and total dry yield at the probability level of 5%. Mean comparison of this interaction showed that all three examined ecotypes had the highest leaf dry yield in the fertilizer ratio of 300: 200: 150 and did not have a significant difference with each other. The effect of ecotype was significant only on net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance and the highest mean of these traits belonged to the Shahdad ecotype. In this study, the simple effect of fertilizer treatment was significant for all traits studied except for specific leaf area and specific leaf weight. The highest mean of leaf area index, net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance was recorded for the 300: 200: 150 fertilizer ratio, while in the case of transpiration rate and crop growth rate there was no significant difference between 300: 200: 150 and 200: 100: 100 combination treatments. In general, in order to achieve maximum crop growth rate and suitable leaf area index to produce the highest leaf dry yield of henna in Shahdad and Roodbar ecotypes, the fertilizer ratio of 300: 200: 150, and in the Bam ecotype, the fertilizer ratio of 200: 100: 100 under similar conditions of this study seems to be appropriate.

IntroductionNowadays there is a global attention to medicinal plants and their role in the production of drugs with no side effects. Our country with climate variety also has important role in production of these plants in the world. Formulate and implement effective programs in line with the resuscitation conservation and efficient utilization of medicinal plants by identifying their characteristics and ecological needs is possible. Henna with the scientific name of Lawsonia inermis L. is a perennial plant having high value in terms of medicinal properties and industrial application. The dye which is derived from green leaves of henna is used for decorating the body with intricate designs and the principle coloring matter is lawsone, 2-hydroxy-1, 4-naphthoqunone. Literature show henna possess antibacterial and anti- immunomodulatory activities along with other properties. The natural constituents of henna are essential oils, 1,4-naphthoquinone, tannins, gallic acid, flavonoids, lipids, sugars, triacontyltridecanoate, mannitol, xanthones, coumarins (5-alkyloxy 7-hydroxycoumarin), 2-3% resins, 5-10% tannic ingredients and up to 2% lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone). A major portion of lawsone is glycosidic bound, which is cleaved by enzymatic hydrolysis of the glycosidichennosids and auto oxidation of aglucons. Reports of various studies show that no experiment have been done on the eco-physiological properties of henna in Iran. Kerman province with the first position in Hana production has a special importance in this regard.
Materials and methodsThis study was carried out in Kerman province in 2015.In this survey climatic characteristics of cultivated area, physico-chemical analysis of soil, performance data, phenological stages and also information on irrigation were investigated. Finally, the relationship between climatic-management characteristics and performance was studied through multiple regressions.
Results and discussionThe results showed that the henna in Kerman province is distributed in Shahdad, Roodbar, Bam and Kahnooj. The area under cultivation in these regions ranged from a minimum of 3 hectares with a yield average of 1.4 ton/ha in Shahdad and a maximum of 7500 hectares with a yield average of 6.5 ton/ha in the Roodbar. The results of this study showed that over 93% of henna cultivation area in Kerman province belongs to Roodbar. The highest and lowest of water use efficiency were belonged to Roodbar (0.46) and Shahdad (0.17) respectively. The total growth period, on average, varied between 190 to 220 days in the studied areas. Climatic zoning of habitat areas were dry climate according to Domarten dryness index. The mean annual precipitation of habitats were 7.72 mm, 33.6% relative humidity, 632 m altitude and the mean temperature was 26.5 ° C. Soil of habitats largely had sandy-loam texture with an pH of 8.19, 3.84 dS/m electrical conductivity and 0.06-0.12% organic matter. The results of stepwise regression analysis showed that nitrogen, rainfall and relative humidity are the most important soil and climate characteristics that affect henna performance , respectively. Availability of nitrogen has a great importance because of their role in the production of proteins, nucleic acids and chlorophyll synthesis. Rainfall is one of the most important climatic factors that can be more effective in yield production through the influence of moisture and soil temperature.
ConclusionHenna is a cold-sensitive species while able to growth in dry climates with an annual precipitation of less than 100 mm. According to recent studies the plant cultivation area in previous years has been more than now. Some problems such as water shortages, agricultural economic problems and etc. have been effective in reducing the cultivation area. In general, due to the importance of medicinal plants, it is necessary to study the various ecophysiological aspects of henna, providing a solution for optimized management and consequently extending area under cultivation in the local areas of the country.

IntroductionOne of the most important factors to obtain the maximum performance or yield in every climatic condition and for each plant varieties is determining the optimum plant density. Henna (Lowsonia inermis L.) is a perennial plant with high value in terms of having medicinal properties and industrial applications. The dye which is derived from green leaves of henna is used for decorating the body with intricate designs and the principle coloring matter is lawsone, 2-hydroxy-1, 4-naphthoqunone. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the agro-physiological reaction of different henna ecotypes to different planting densities in Kerman weather conditions.
Materials and MethodsThe study was carried out as a factorial experiment based on complete randomized block design with three replications in Shahid Bahonar University in 2015. The experiment consisted of four plant densities (25, 33, 50 and 100 plants m-2) and three ecotypes (Shahdad, Roodbar and Bam). Due to its small seeds and germination problems the planting method used was transplanting. In this study, growth indices such as leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), leaf area ratio (LAR), specific leaf area (SLA), specific leaf weight (SLW), leaf area duration (LAD) and biomass duration (BMD) were calculated. The net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate were measured in the middle of growing period by photosynthesis meter (CI-340 model, CID Bio- Science companies, USA). At the end, the results were analyzed using the SAS v. 9.1 and MSTATC software’s and diagrams were drawn by Excel software.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the studied ecotypes were significantly different in terms of CGR, RGR and stomatal conductance. The highest average of CGR belonged to Shahdad ecotype while there was no significant difference between Roodbar and Bam ecotypes in this case. Shahdad ecotype with the RGR of 0.018 g.g.day had the highest average of this trait. This difference could be due to physiological, morphological and chemical factors as well as allocating pattern of photosyntates, all affects the relative growth rate. The maximum value of stomatal conductance was recorded for Shahdad ecotype (234.6 mmol m-2 s-1), that was not significantly different with Bam ecotypes (229.6 mmol m-2 s-1). There are some reports showing that the number of stomata per unit of leaf area may be changed with plant species and varieties. The differences in studied densities were statistically significant for the measured traits. Results showed that the maximum of CGR was recorded for 100 plants m-2 density. Increase in CGR at the higher densities could be due to the increased number of plants per unit area producing a higher leaf area index. In this research LAI increased with increasing in planting density and the highest average of this trait was obtained from 100 plants m-2. LAD and BMD were affected significantly by planting density. The results of mean comparisons showed that average of LAD and BMD decreased with increasing in plant density from 50 to 100 plants m-2. The same result was obtained for net photosynthesis, transpiration rate and stomatal conductance. Low net photosynthesis in 100 plants m-2 density could be due to high competition between plants for light and food absorption, increase in shading and consequently increasing in respiration. The results showed that total dry yield and leaf dry yield were significantly affected by planting densities. The highest and lowest values of mentioned traits belonged to densities of 100 and 25 plants m-2 respectively.
ConclusionsGenerally between ecotypes evaluated in terms of performance, there was no difference in Kerman weather conditions. Also the highest yield was belonged to100 plants m-2 density. It should be noted that henna is a perennial plant and this planting density for the first year is economically justified but for more than one year old plants, according to changes in body size of the plant, research on the appropriate density seems to be necessary.

Determination of crop NPK requirements is important for proper crop growth. To determine the NPK nutrition of henna (Lowsonia inermis L.), a factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design was carried out in the Shahdad, Kerman province, in 2015-2016. In this study, response of three henna ecotypes (Bam, Shahdad and Roodbar) with four fertilizer combinations consisting of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N: K: P, 0: 0: 0, 100: 50: 50, 200: 100: 100, 300: 200: 150 kg/ha) were investigated for some growth indices like CGR, RGR, net photosynthesis, transpiration rate and stomatal conductance. The results indicated that the highest mean of CGR, RGR, net photosynthesis, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance and total dry yield belonged to Shahdad ecotype. While, there was no statistically significant difference between the Shahdad and Roodbar ecotypes for leaf dry yield. The effect of NPK nutrition treatment on the most of traits measured was significant at 1% probability level. The highest mean of traits measured belonged to NPK combination of 300: 200: 150, while the difference was not significant from 200: 100: 100 for leaf dry yield and RGR. In this study, the interaction of ecotype and nutrition was not significant for the traits under study. Therefore, according to the results, it can be concluded that Shahdad and Roodbar ecotypes and combinations of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers with a ratio of 200: 100: 100 are appropriate for henna in Shahdad climatic conditions.

To investigate the effect of salicylic acid (0, 50 and 100 mM) on some physiological characteristics of henna, medicinal-industrial plant, under drought stress (0, -2 and -4 bar induced by PEG 6000) a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design was carried out in the research greenhouse of agriculture faculty of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. The content of photosynthetic pigment, protein, antioxidant activity of catalase and poly phenol oxidase and dry matter production were measured as some physiological response of henna. All measured traits affected significantly by drought stress (p

To investigate the effect of plant density on growth indices and photosynthesis of three henna (Lowsonia inermis L.) ecotypes a factorial experiment using randomized complete block design with three replications was carried out in the Shahdad region in Kerman province of Iran in 2015-2016. Three henna ecotypes (Bam, Shahdad and Roodbar) and four plant densities (100, 50, 33 and 25 plant.m-2 equivalent to on row spacing of 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm, respectively) were evaluated as the first and second experimenatl factors, respectively. Growth indices, net photosynthesis, transpiration rate and stomatal conductance were measured and analyzed. The results showed that ecotypes were significantly different for all measured traits except leaf area index (LAI), leaf area ratio (LAR) and leaf area duration (LAD). The highest averages of the measured traits belonged to Shahdad ecotype. A significant difference was observed between the levels of plant densities for all measured traits except for specific leaf area (SLA). The ecotype and plant density interaction had significant effect on leaf area duration (LAD), biomass duration (BMD) and transpiration rate. Consequently, the highest leaf dry yield (economically valuable part of the plant) was obtained from the Shahdad (508.2 g.m-2) and Roodbar (506.4 g.m-2) ecotypes and plant density of 100 plant.m-2 (738.6 g.m-2). It can be concluded that 100 plant.m-2 is the most suitable plant density for henna in the first year of planting.

IntroductionNowadays, salinity is one of the limiting factors for crop production in arid and semi-arid regions. On the other hand, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a self-pollinated and short-day plant, which partly has been adapted to salinity and water stress conditions; also play an important role in humans, livestock and poultry nourishments. All studies have showed the positive effects of Silicon on growth and yield of plants in both normal and stress conditions. The aim of this experiment was to improve salinity tolerance of Sorghum by application of Silicon.
Materials and MethodsA split plot experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications in both normal and salt stress conditions was carried out at research farm of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in 2013. Silicon treatments (0 and 6 mM) were considered as main plot and various sorghum genotypes (payam, sepideh, TN-4-70, TN-04-71, TN-04-39, TN-04-107, TN-04-100, TN-04-37, TN-04-68, TN-04-83, TN-04-62 and TN-04-95) were assigned to sub plots. The sodium silicate was used as silica source. The data were analyzed by SAS software using combine analysis. Means comparisons were accomplished by Duncan multiple range test at 5% probability level. Some of the measured traits were as follow: Relative water content (Ritchie and Nguyen, 1990), Relative permeability (33), leaf area index and chlorophyll index (by SPAD).
Results and DiscussionAccording to the results, use of silicon led to increase of RWC under salinity stress, while RWC decreased by 13% when no silicon applied. Salinity significantly decreased 1000-grain weight. Maximum grain yield obtained from TN-04-37 (987.6 g m-2) under normal condition with foliar application of silicon. Application of silicon under stress condition led to 38% increase in grain yield of Sepideh compared to control. Under salt stress, silicon also increased shoot dry weight in TN-04-107, TN-04-70, TN-04-37, Payam and Sepideh genotypes in comparison with control. Sepideh and Payam showed the lowest sensitive to salinity. In the other genotypes, harvest index decreased more than 50%. The minimum rate of harvest index was recorded for Payam genotypes under salinity stress and silicon treatments. Under stress conditions, silicon significantly increased leaf area index in Sepideh, Payam, TN-04-83, TN-04-68, TN-04-37, TN-04-100 and TN-04-62. Chlorophyll index also increased under salinity stress using silicon treatments. The highest chlorophyll index belonged to TN-04-68 and was significantly different from the others genotypes. Use of silicon improved the membrane stability in TN-04-37, TN-04-107, TN-04-100, TN-04-71, TN-04-70, TN-04-95 and Sepideh.
ConclusionsThe results showed that the use of silicon improved the physiological characteristics, yield and yield components of sorghum. Most of the genotypes showed a positive reaction to the applied silicon especially under stress condition. According to the results the maximum yield obtained from Sepideh (540 g m-2) and Payam (475 g m-2), respectively. It seems that among the studied genotypes, Sepideh, Payam and TN-04-100 had the best response to the silicon and showed the minimum sensitivity to the salinity stress. The most sensitive genotypes were TN-04-39, TN-04-68, and TN-04-62. In general it can be said that either under normal condition or salinity stress, silicon is able to improve yield production of grain Sorghum and its components.

To investigate the effects of salicylic acid (0, 10, 15 and 20 µM) on some physiological characteristics of Fenugreek (Trigonellafoenum- graecum L.) under drought stress (0, -3 and -6 Bar) a Factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was employed in research greenhouse of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in 2012 growing season. Results showed that drought stress significantly increased ion leakage, proline and reduced sugar, but decreased other traits (relative water content, membrane stability index, chlorophyll a, b, a and carotenoids (ion leakage,Proline and reduced sugar) significantly. Increasing in salicylic acid level ameliorated deleterious effects of drought stress on mentioned traits except proline and reduced sugar and led to increase in relative water content, membrane stability index chlorophyll a, b, a and carotenoids under drought stress. Ion leakage also decreased with increasing salicylic acid. All the traits were affected by the interactions except prolin and reduced sugar. This implies different response of salicylic acid in different drought stress. Therefore salicylic acid is able to reduce the negative effects of drought stress on this plant.

Recently, the application of SA has increased to improve plants’ resistance to stresses such as drought. Hence to investigate SA effects on morphophysiological characteristics of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) under drought stress, a split plot experiment based on latin square design with three replications was carried out at the research farm of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in 2012. Three levels of drought stress (50, 75 and 100% of field capacity) and three concentrations of SA (0, 0.5 and 1mM) were considered as main and sub-plot treatments, respectively. Foliar application of SA was performed at 3-to 4-leaf growth stage and before application of drought stress. Results showed that the drought stress reduced the number of fertile umbel/plant, the number of fertile umbellate/umbel, the number of grains/umbellate, relative water content, chlorophyll, carotenoids and grain yield, while increased electrolyte leakage when compared with control. Salicylic acid reduced electrolyte leakage, while increased the number of fertile umbel/plant, the number of fertile umbellate/umbel, the number of grains/umbellate, RWC, chlorophyll, carotenoids and grain yield when compared to control (No SA application). Interaction of drought stress × SA on the number of fertile umbel/plant, the number of fertile umbellate/umbel, RWC, carotenoids and grain yield was significant. Increasing photosynthetic pigments, RWC and decreasing electrolyte leakage indicates a reduction in oxidative damage and implies SA role in tolerance of fennel to drought stress.

To investigate SA effects on physiological and biochemical characteristics of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) under water deficit, a split plot experiment based on latin square design with three replications was carried out at research farm of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in 2012. Three levels of water deficit (50, 75 and 100 percent of field capacity) and 3 concentrations of SA (0, 0.5 and 1mM) were considered as main and sub plots, respectively. Foliar application of SA was performed at 3 to 4 leaves growth stages and before application of Irrigation. The obtained results showed that water deficit reduced grain yield, essential oil content and percentage while the amount of superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase increased significantly compared to control. Increasing in concentration of salicylic acid led to a significant increase in grain yield, essential oil content, essential oil yield, superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase compared to control. Interaction of water deficit and SA on grain yield, essential oil yield and antioxidant enzymes were significant. Increasing in antioxidant enzymes indicates reduction in oxidative damage and implies SA roles in tolerance of fennel under water deficit.

Longitudinally seam welded pipes are frequently used in the oil and gas industries. Failure of such pipes may be occurred due to the crack growth initiated in the weld zone. At service conditions, cracks existing in these pipes usually experience complex tensile-shear deformations. For estimating the onset of fracture in the cracked pipes during their service life it is necessary to obtain the stress intensity factors. Hence in this paper, several 3D semi elliptical cracks initiated longitudinally along the weld line in the outer and inner wall of a welded pipe with different aspect ratios ranging from 0.5 to 1 are analyzed using ABAQUS software. It is shown that the contribution of all three modes (KI, KII and KIII) may affect significantly the onset of fracture in the investigated pipes. However, the effect of mode I deformation (KI) is more pronounced than the shear mode deformations (KII and KIII). It was also shown that the value of equivalent stress intensity factor in the inner wall is greater than the outer wall of cracked pipe.

To investigate effects of drought stress on yield and yield components of sesame in Kerman region a split-plot experiment based onn compelet randomised block design with three replications was carried out in 1388. Irrigation levels (Normal irrigation in all growth stages, witholding water after 50% flowering, witholding water after 50% pod setting) and differen t sesame landraces (Jiroft, Shiraz, Ardestan, Dezful, Shahr babak, Gorgan, Sirjan, Markazi, Birjand and Orzueieh) were considered as main plots and sub-plots respectively. Plant height, the biggest pod length, noumber of grain per pod, noumber of pod per plant, grain weight per plant, thousand grain weight and grain yield were the measured traits. Results showed all the measured traits were significantly affected by the irrigation treatments. The effects of different landraces on all traits except noumber of grain per plant were significant. Irrigation × landraces interaction affected all measured traits except the biggest pod length significantly. The highest grain yield was recorde for Markezi landrace (845.2 kg –ha) under normal irrigation and the lowest one was obtained from Jiroft landrace (104.8 kg –ha) with witholding irrigation after 50% flowering.

Recently, application of SA has increased to improve plants resistance to stresses such as drought. Hence, to investigate SA effects on morphophysiological characteristics of Fennel(Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) under drought stress, a split plot experiment based on latin square design with three replications was carried out at research farm of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in 2012. Three levels of drought stress (50, 75 and 100% of field capacity) and 3 concentrations of SA (0, 0.5 and 1mM) were considered as main and sub plot respectively. Foliar application of SA was performed at 3 to 4 leaf growth stage and before application of drought stress. The results showed that drought stress reduced plant height, the number and length of internodes on the main stem, grain yield and leaf protein (14.2, 2.4, 31.5, 51 and 23.5 percent respectively) and increased lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide and phenolic compounds(66.6, 10.5 and 14.1 percent) compared to control. With increasing concentrations of salicylic acid, except for a reduction in lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide (31.8 and 13.7 percent) a significant increase was observed in other traits when compared to control. Interaction of drought stress and SA on internode length on the main stem, lipid peroxidation and protein were signified. it was concluded that salicylic acid whit concentration of 1 mM has an effective role in alevieting stress injuries induced by drought.

This research was aimed to evaluate the effect of drought stress، induced by polyethylene glycol (PEG6000)، on physiological and biochemical parameters of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.). The traits were included: shoot dry weight، electrolyte leakage، relative water content، photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a، b، total chlorophyll and carotenoids)، malondialdehyde and other aldehyde''s contents، anthocyanines، polyphenol compounds، flavonoids، phenylalanine ammonialayse activity، soluble sugar content and protein. An experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design with three replications under hydroponic culture at research laboratory of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman in 2011. Treatments were four levels of drought stress (0، -0. 2، -0. 4 and -0. 6 MPa). Results showed that drought stress caused a significant reduction in shoot dry weight، relative water content، photosynthetic pigments، anthocyanines، polyphenol compounds، flavonoids and protein and an increase in electrolyte leakage، malondialdehyde content، phenylalanine ammonialayse activity and soluble sugar. Based on the obtained results، it seems that this plant is sensitive to drought stress، and the application of exogenous protective compounds could increase the antioxidant capacity of plant against stress condition.

One of the most effective ways to reach yield stability with low input is increasing diversity through utilizing intercrops in Agro-ecosystems. A field experiment based on a randomized complete block design with six treatments and three replications and two crops، green pea and nutrifed millet، was carried out at Research Farm of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Kerman during growing season 2011-2012. The sole cultivation of green pea and millet، 25+75، 50+50، 75+50% of substitutional intercrops and mixed cultivation (50:50) of seeds on each row constituted the experimental treatments. Results showed that all the measured traits including dry forage yield، land equivalent ratio، acid detergent fiber، neutral detergent fiber، ash and crude protein were significantly affected by the experimental treatments. The highest dry forage yield was recorded for sole millet، 25% green pea+ 75% millet and 50+ 50 % treatment without significant difference other among them. The difference between sole crop of green pea with 75% green pea+ 25% millet was not significant for crude protein. Increasing green pea percentage in intercrop resulted in Neutral detergent fiber reduction. The highest value of LER obtained from25% green pea+ 75% millet that had no significant difference with that of 50% green pea+ 50% millet. Based on the results of this experiment it could be concluded that the intercrop of 50% green pea+ 50% millet resulted in increase in the quality and quantity of forage yield.

drought stress has been well documented as an effective parameter in decreasing crop production، developing and releasing new varieties which are adaptable to water deficit conditions can be a constructive program to overcome unsuitable environmental conditions. In order to evaluate the adaptation of rice genotypes to drought stress and to identify the tolerant and sensitive genotypes، 15 genotypes were studied in two environments (stressed and non –stressed conditions) using randomized complete block design with three replications in the Research farm of Gonbad Kavos University in 2008 growing season. Analysis of variance showed that there was highly significant effect (p> 0. 01) between genotypes in all traits and in both Environments. Mean comparison showed that the highest yield belonged to Dom siah، Sarkho and Sangjo in nonstressed and stressed respectively. Mean productivity (MP)، geometric mean productivity (GMP) and stress tolerance index (STI) were the most suitable indices showing the highest correlation with yield. Based on MP، GMP and STI and also biplot technique، Garde، Sarkho، Sangjo، IR83752-B-B123، Tarom mahali and Tarom Amiri) were determined as the most tolerant cultivars while BRSBONANC GRALDO being the most sensitive.

Drought stress has an important role in yield reduction of crops. To investigate the effects of applying zeolite hydrogel (as a superabsorbent) in reduction of adverse effects of drought stress on chlorophyll content, nitrogen, growth indices and their relationships with quantitative and qualitative yield of pearl millet (cv. Nitrifeed), a split plot experiment (in space and time), based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications, was carried out at Research Farm of Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran, in 2011. Treatments included drought stress at four levels (irrigation at 40, 60, 80 and 100% of field capacity) as the main factor and superabsorbent hydrogel at three levels (0, 150 and 300 kg/ha) as the sub-factor. Results revealed that there was a positive and significant correlation (r = 0.97**) between chlorophyll content and leaf nitrogen percentage. Also, significant correlation was observed between these traits and forage fresh and dry weight of forage, protein yield and raw fiber percentage of the forage. As drought stress increased, the measured traits showed a descending trend. The superabsorbent polymer increased the fresh and dry weight of forage, growth indices and qualitative traits of pearl millet. Mean fresh weight of forage, chlorophyll content, protein content and percentage of fiber showed no significant difference between 100% and 80% irrigation levels. Superabsorbent application led to 20% water saving. Therefore, it can be said that superabsorbent hydrogel application under drought stress will improve yield, qualitative traits and growth indices of pearl millet through increasing soil water holding capacity, reducing nutrient leaching, fast and optimal growth of roots and better soil aeration.