خدیجه عباسی

The golden cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis, is considered as one of the most damaging potato pathogens in the world. Considering the skin composition of cyst nematodes and the ability of some fungi to produce enzymes that decompose it, this research was conducted to identify the fungi associated with potato cyst nematode.

Eighty-six fungal isolates infecting potato golden cyst nematode in Hamedan province in western Iran were isolated and purified and identified based on morphological characteristics by valid keys.

Eight species of fungi belonging to three genera Alternaria, Clonostachys, Fusarium were isolated and identified from potato golden cyst nematode. The highest frequency was related to different species of Fusarium.

The morphological characteristics of these eight fungi have been described and illustrated.

Plant parasitic nematodes cause important economic losses in agricultural crops. Knot-producing nematode, Meloidogyne javanica is the most destructive of many crops in the world. In order to control plant nematodes as one of the important plant pathogens, various methods such as, fallow and crop rotation, cultivation of resistant cultivars, biological control and chemical methods are used. Today, due to the excessive use of agricultural pesticides, the health of the consumer community and the environment are endangered. Because of the chitin and protein are as dominant compositions in middle layer of the eggshell, using of the chitinases and proteases produced as degrading enzymes in a wide range of the fungi is a good strategy for biological control of the on knot-producing nematode. The disintegration of nematode eggs can only be caused by enzymatic action. Activity of the fungal egg-parasites leads to immobility and death of the embryo and results in a reduction of nematode population density. Many natural enemies of plant parasitic nematodes occur that may be useful for biological control. These include pathogens, predators, competitors and antagonists of which 76% are fungi. The fungal antagonists have been most extensively studied and are considered the most applicable for biological control of nematodes. The use of biological agents to control of plant-parasitic nematodes is less effective compared with chemical method, but positive result of fungal agents has been encouraging. In this study has tried to be examined considerable ability of the various antagonistic fungi to control of M. javanica in vitro and greenhouse conditions.

In this study has tried to be examined antagonistic ability of seven isolates of five fungal genus including: Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium equiseti, Paecilomyces sp., Trichoderma atroviridae, Ulocladium dauci and Alternaria alternata on knot-producing nematode in vitro and greenhouse conditions. The ability of the protease enzyme production of fungal isolates was also evaluated. The protease specific activity assay in 7 isolates of various species of fungi obtained from infected knot-producing nematode over 5 days of fungal growth (24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h) was measured. Also evaluation was performed in vitro by calculating the percentage of parasitized eggs and larvae in water-agar and also in the greenhouse by examining the growth factors of cucumber under the antagonistic effect of fungal isolates on nematodes. The ability of antagonistic activity of the fungi on the eggs was evaluated in water-agar medium with evaluation of the interaction between fungi and eggs. The numbers of healthy and parasitized (dead) larvaes and eggs were calculated after two weeks. The ability of the antagonistic fungi under greenhouse conditions was done. To provide of fungal inoculum, 20g of soaked wheat seed were cast in bags with autoclave capability. Per every gram of casted seed, 2 ml distilled water were added and during 24 hours they autoclaved 3 times. Then to every of bag number of 4 fungi disk with 5 mm diameter from selected isolates was added in 3 repetitions and was kept in 25ºC and dark conditions. To colonization all of the seeds and to avoid of hang of them, every 48 hours interval the seeds in bags were mixed. After three weeks all of the seeds were infected with fungal isolates. The ability of the antagonistic fungi under greenhouse conditions was done by adding fungal inoculum and the numbers of 2000 eggs to each pot and evaluation of performance traits of cucumber in pot after 90 days. In every two conditions, data analysis ANOVA (Analysis of variance) was conducted using of the SAS software version 9.4 in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates.

Analysis of variance of evaluation results in vitro and greenhouse conditions showed significant difference among isolates in 1% level. Results showed there is direct relation between increase in plant yield and add fungal isolates to the pot. The results of antagonistic ability of fungal isolates in vitro and greenhouse showed there is good correlation between two conditions. So the results showed a positive effect of the fungal isolates in reducing nematode damages.

Finally, based on all of the evaluations F. equiseti isolate was reported as the most effective isolate an F. oxysporum isolate as the least effective antagonist fungus.

The genus Stenchaetothrips Bagnall is belonging to the subfamily Thripinae with only one species in Iran. Here, the second species, S. faurei (Bhatti, 1962) is newly recorded from the country. Only two female specimens of this species have been collected on the rice fields from Ilam province (west of Iran). The color of body (mainly pale yellow), absence of campaniform sensilla on metanotum and the presence of compete comb on posterior margin of abdominal tergite VIII have been considered the most important characters of the species. Relevant illustrations and geographical distribution of the species are provided.

Potato golden cyst nematode(Globodera rostochiensis) is the most destructive plant-parasitic nematode of thise crop and surching for variuse control ways is very essential.. Because of the chitin is a dominant composition in middle layer of the eggshell in nematodes, using of the chitinases by chitin-degrading enzymes in a wide range of the fungi is a good strategy for biological control of the potato golden cyst nematode. In this research 154 fungal isolates were recovered from infected eggs of the potato golden cyst nematode, G. rostochiensis. These isolates were identified based on morphological and molecular features including internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) of ribosomal DNA.. The ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S sequences were obtained by sequencing both strands in opposite directions using the PCR amplification primers, ITS1 and ITS4 in genomics resource laboratory at Massachusetts University, USA. In this study, according to morphological features and sequencing of ITS regions of ribosomal DNA, these 154 isolates were classified in 13 genera, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Beauveria, Candida, Chaetomium, Cylindrocarpon, Fusarium, Trichocladium, Lecanicillium, Plectosphaerella, Purpureocillium, Trichoderma andUlocladium. The five fungal species Candida parapsilosis, Cylindrocarpon olidum, Trichocladium griseum, Plectosphaerella cucumerina and Ulocladium dauciare reported for the first timefrom G. rostochiensis in Iran. As a producer of various enzymes, the filamentous fungi has been suggested as an important means of biological control for G. rostochiensis.

The plant parasitic nematodes are among the most important agents causing losses in agricultural crops (Nicol et al. 2013). The golden cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis (Wollenweber, 1923; Behrens, 1975) is the most destructive nematode of potato in the world (Brodie, 1984). Chitin is the most abundant polymer in structure of nematode eggshell. Chitinases are widely distributed in fungi and play important roles in degradation of chitin. The aim of this study was to assay chitinase activity in 16 isolates of various species of Fusarium obtained from golden potato cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis. In the current study, 16 Fusarium isolates were recovered from infected eggs of the golden potato cyst nematode, G. rostochiensis. These isolates were identified based on morphological (Seifert, 1996) and molecular features including internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) of ribosomal DNA. Total genomic DNA was extracted from lyophilized mycelia with a QIAGEN DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Germany). ITS regions of ribosomal DNA were amplified with the ITS1 (forward primer) and ITS4 (reverse primer) primers. PCR amplifications were performed with total reaction volume of 25 μl using a Takara EmeraldAmp GT PCR Master Mix. PCR products were separated by electrophoresis technique using 1% agarose gel in 1X Tris-Borate-EDTA (TBE) buffer by adding 12 μl SYBR-safe 10,000X concentrate DNA stain to melted agarose before running the gel and finally visualized under ultraviolet illuminator. The ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S sequences were obtained by sequencing both strands in opposite directions using the PCR amplification primers, ITS1 and ITS4 in genomics resource laboratory at Massachusetts University, USA. Colloidal chitin was prepared using the procedure of Tikhonov et al. (2002). For enzyme assay in liquid media, the 16 isolates were grown in minimal synthetic medium (MSM) containing colloidal chitin (1 g l-1) based on the method described by Zeilinger et al. (1999). The culture medium was filtered through Whatman paper No. 3 filter followed by filtration through 0.2-mm Millipore polydifluoropropilene membranes. The filtrate obtained was analyzed for chitinolytic activity. Chitinase activity was determined by measuring the release of reducing saccharides from colloidal chitin by the N-acetyl-glucosamine-dinitrosalicylate method according to the method described by Monreal and Reese (1969). Protein concentration was determined according to Bradford (1976) with bovine serum albumin (Sigma) as the standard. Chitinase specific activity was obtained by dividing the enzyme activity rate by total protein mass. Enzyme assay was done to determine the most promising isolates for biological control of G. rostochiensis in 24 and 96 h after fungal growth. The chitinase specific activity data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using software SAS, version 9.0 (Statistical Analysis System Institute Inc., USA) in a CRD (completely randomized design) with three replicates. Two selected isolates were assayed using a chitinase assay, fluorimetric kit-CS1030 (Sigma). The assay included three substrates, 4-Methylumbelliferyl N,N′-diacetyl-β-D-chitobioside, 4-Methylumbelliferyl N-acetyl-β-Dglucosaminide and 4-Methylumbelliferyl β-D-N,N′,N′′-triacetylchitotriose for the detection of the chitinolytic isozymes Chitobiosidase, β-N-acetylglucosaminidase and Endochitinase. The experiment was a randomized complete block design (RCB) with three replicates. Chitinase activity was subjected to analysis of variance using software SAS, version 9.0. Enzyme activity was expressed over time using the Logistic-Peak, software Slide Write, version 2.0. Two isolates (the strongest and weakest ones) were selected to determine the optimum conditions for chitinase production. The measured conditions were pH, temperature and reaction time between enzyme and substrate in a N-acetyl-glucosaminedinitrosalicylate method. According to measurements taken by an enzyme activity assay kit, the fourth day (96 h) showed the highest activity for the two selected isolates. We then tested our two isolates at pHs of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, temperatures of 22°C, 25°C, 28°C, 31°C for differing periods of time (1 h, 6 h, and 24 h). The experiment was based on factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replicates. Analysis of variance chitinase activity was performed using SAS 9.0 software. Among 16 isolates, F12 (1/02 U/mg) and F15 (0/04 U/mg) had the maximum and minimum amount of specific activity, respectively. According to morphological features and sequencing of ITS regions (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) of ribosomal DNA, these 16 isolates were classified in three species i.e. F. solani, F. oxysporum and F. equiseti. The optimum conditions to produce chitinase in isolates of F12 and F15 were pH=6, 96 hours after fungal growth in 25°C and the reaction between the enzyme and substrate during one hour achieved by the N-acetyl-glucosamine-dinitrosalicylate method. As a producer of various chitinase enzymes, the filamentous fungus, Fusarium spp. seems to be recommendable to biologically control Globodera rostochiensis.

Potato (Solanumtuberosum) is one of the most important crops used as a source of human food. Iran is the third-largest producer of potato in Asia, where the production rate in 2015 was estimated to be about 5 million tonnes. Potato producers inHamedan province produce 21.3% oftotal potato harvestedinIran. Golden potato cyst nematode, Globoderarostochiensis is the most destructive potato pathogen. As the chitin is a dominant composition in middle layer of the eggshell, using the chitinases produced as chitin-degrading enzymes in a wide range of fungiis a good strategy for biological control of the golden potato cyst nematode. We assessedthe ability of various antagonistic fungi to control Globoderarostochiensisunder in vitro and greenhouse conditions.
Thirty four fungal isolates obtained from infected eggs of the potato cyst nematode, Globoderarostochiensisin potato fieldsofHamedan were evaluated in two chitin-agar and water-agar mediums under in vitro and greenhouse conditions.The ability of thechitinase enzyme production was assessedin chitin-agar medium with colloidal chitin as substrate, so the chitin was used as exclusive source of carbon.Colloidal chitin was prepared based onthe procedure of Seyedasliet al. (2004) with 10 g of powder chitin from practical-grade crab shell chitin (Sigma) in 100 ml of 85% H3PO4. Water was added to the above mixtureand was filtered with cheese cloth. To completely remove acid, water addition and filtrationrepeated for several times. The produced unguent materialwas dried and powdered and then used as carbon source in the medium. 0.5 percent of colloidal chitin was added to the medium. Afterwards, a 5 mm disk from the edges of 5days old was placed in the center of Petridish and all of them were kept for 5 days at 25º C. Chitinase detection medium (chitin-agar) was directly supplemented with colloidal chitin (5 g/l) and bromocresol purple (0.15 g/l). The ability of antagonistic activity of the fungi on the cyst nematode was testedin water-agar medium through assessing the interaction between fungi and cysts. The numbers of healthy and parasitized (dead) larvae and eggs were calculated after two weeks. The ability of the antagonistic fungi under greenhouse conditions was also analyzed. To provide fungal inoculum, 20g of soaked wheat seed were cast in nylon with autoclave capability. 2 ml distilled water were added per gram of cast seed and they were autoclaved threetimesduring 24 hours. Four fungi disk with 5 mm diameter from selected isolates were then added to allnylonswiththreerepetitions and werekept in 25ºC and dark conditions. To colonizeall of the seeds and avoid hangingthem, the seeds in nylons were mixed within 48 hours interval. After three weeks all of the seeds were infected with fungal isolates. The ability of the antagonistic fungi under greenhouse conditions was studiedby adding fungal inoculum and 100 cysts to each pot and performance evaluation of potato traits in pot after 90 days.
ANOVA (Analysis of variance) data analysis was conducted using of the SAS software version 9.0 in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates under all conditions.
The ANOVA results ofqualitative evaluation for chitinase activity in Petri dish containing chitin-agar showed significant difference among isolates at1% level of significance. Furthermore, there was apositiveassociationbetween diameter and chitanase activity. Isolates 153(P. lilacinus) and 6 (C. parapsilosis) had the maximum and minimumdiameter, respectively.
A significant difference was foundamong isolatesin the 0.1% level of significance. Isolate 152 (L. muscarium) had the greatestantagonistic ability and 62 (F. solani)was the weakest antagonist isolate.
Mean comparisons of measured performance traits of potato in pot showed in all traits thatisolates 154 (T. atroviridae)and 151 (B. bassiana)were the best antagonist isolates under greenhouse conditions. Isolates56 (F. equiseti)and 12 (F. oxysporum)with the lowest measured values in all functional traits were alsothe weakest antagonist fungi.
The results illustrated a strong correlation between antagonistic ability of fungal isolates under in vitro and greenhouse conditions.Therefore, fungal isolates can effectively reduce the nematode damages. Finally, isolates 151(B. bassiana), 152(L. muscarium), 153 (P. lilacinus) and 154(T. atroviridae) were selected as the strongest antagonistic fungi in controlling this nematode.

The relation between nature and God is among the long-standing questions in the history of philosophy. Nature for the pre-Socratic philosophers is the first thing with which they dealt, and for Socrates, Plato, and especially for Aristotle, was of special importance. The phrase "God or Nature" has been used for the first time by the Stoic philosophers. In the middle ages, the relation between nature and God has been put forwarded within the real of christian theology, and in the renaissance and modern times has continued to be disscussed from a new perspective. Our main concern in the present paper is to study the question in Spinoza's philosophy. In this regard, there dominates two viewpoints: a) atheism, b) pantheism; the former of which is believed by the Synagoge and, among the philosophers, by Hume, and the latter and more dominant, is maintained by the most of historian of philosophy. Ofcourse, there is a third viewpoint, i.e. panentheism, that in spite of its similarity with the pantheism, is more nearer to theism. The authors tries to show that the panentheistic interpretation of spinozism is more consistent with his system of thought than the atheistic or pantheistic ones.

This study was conducted to determine the relationship of RAPD and ISSR markers with virulence of 58 isolates of Cytospora chrysosperma (Pers.) Fr. on walnut seedlings using stepwise regression. The results of RAPD and ISSR tests showed that 10 out of 20 RAPD primers and 12 out of 20 ISSR primers had significant amount of appearance, polymorphism and repeatability among different isolates. Ten and twelve selected primers showed a high amount of polymorphic respectively 94.7% and 95.8% in different isolates. For further analysis the data of virulence trait, was considered as dependent variable and molecular data (0,1) were entered as independent variables in the regression models and the bands with high R2 in regression models were selected for further discussion. Five RAPD markers were related to virulence and totally explained 43.7% of variation of the trait. Out of them two markers showed positive relation and 3 of them showed negative relation with the virulence. The highest percentage of explained variance belonged to marker A7=1900 bp (R2=18.2%) and lowest was due to marker OP13=400 bp (R2=4.8%). Also five ISSR markers were related to virulence and totally explained 39% of variation of the trait. Out of them 3 markers showed positive relation and two of them showed negative relation with the virulence. The highest percentage of explained variance belonged to marker UBC864=350 bp (R2=11.6%) and lowest was due to marker UBC880=740 bp (R2=5.4%). Indentified markers could be used for marker assisted selection (MAS) and therefore to identify isolates.

A ll nurses need continuing education, especially those working in oncology wards. In the current programs, there are just two general patterns for teaching: teacher - centered and student - centered patterns. T he aim of this study was to compare the effect of teacher -centered (lecture) and student-centered (module) teaching methods on the knowledge and practice of oncology nurses in relation to safety standards with cytotoxic drugs. In this quasi-experimental study, all the nurses in Shiraz (2010-2011), who participated in the prescription of cytotoxic drugs to patients were selected (n=86) and randomly divided into three groups. The module group (n=29) used a self-directed module, the lecture group (n=28) was taught by an experienced lecturer in the classroom for 5 hours, and the control group (n=29) did not receive any intervention. Data in relation to knowledge and practice of oncology nurses in the three groups were collected before and 8 weeks after the intervention using a researcher-made questionnaire and checklist. To analyze the data, paired t-test, Chi-square, one-way ANOVA, and Tukey test were used at 0.05. Knowledge and practice mean scores increased significantly from baseline in both intervention groups (P<.001), but there was no significant difference between the scores for the control group (P>0.05). Change of knowledge and practice mean scores in lecture and module grous was significantly more than that of the control group (P<0.001). No considerable difference was observed between the lecture and module groups (P>0.05). Given the results of the current study, advantages of student-centered educational methods, nursing workload, and the sensitive nature of the nursing profession, modules can be suggested as a suitable alternative method for lecture.

Cytospora dieback and canker disease is one of prevalent disease of walnut trees in Iran caused by several species of Cytospora genus. The aim of this study was to determination of virulence degree in 58 isolates of dominant species، Cytospora chrysosperma. isolates from 12 provinces of Iran; Hamedan، Kurdistan، Kermanshah، Ilam، West Azarbaijan، Zanjan، Markazi، Lorestan، Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari، Isfahan، Kohgilouye va Boyerahmad and Fars were inoculated on three-year old seedlings and lesion area have been recorded 30 days after inoculation. Furthermore، Pathogenicity survey on detached twigs carried out in laboratory situation to check accuracy of pathogenicity determination. Based on these results، there was noticeable variation in virulence degree of tested isolates. However، most of isolates didn’t show any pathogenicity. Indeed، 34% and 24% of isolates didn’t shown significant difference with control in pathogenicity test on seedlings and detached twigs، respectively. Also، there was week but significant (23%) correlation between two evaluation methods. Collectively، it seems that evaluation of virulence or resistance degree would not be reliable via the detached twigs technique.

Cytospora canker caused by the fungus Cytospora spp. is one of the most common diseases of walnut trees in many parts of Iran. To identify the species of Cytospora on the walnut trees, during 2008-2009, more than 200 samples of infected twigs and branches with symptoms of Cytospora canker were collected from the major walnut cultivation areas in Iran. Based on morphological characteristics of asexual fruiting bodies on the bark (including presence or absence of conceptacle, shape, size and number of ostiol, shape and color of disk, arrangement of chambers, color of tendrils, size of conidia, conidiophores and conidiogenous cells and branching type of conidiophores) four species, namely Cytospora cincta, C.chrysosperma, C.leucostoma and C.schulzeri were identified. C.chrysosperma consisting of about 80% of collected isolates was determined as prevalent species. Moreover, the walnut tree was known as a new host species for C. schulzeri.