عباس علی ناصریان

Breeding quality calves with a desirable genetic potential is one of the important criteria in dairy herds. In recent years, particular attention had been paid to calf breeding, especially to the composition of starter. Early weaning and encouraging the calf to consume solid feed reduces the incidence of various diseases, including diarrhea. It was important to transfer the calf from the non-ruminant state to the active ruminant state as soon as possible for the improved health and growth of the dairy calf. To transition from a liquid feed to a solid feed containing grains and forage, it was necessary to address several challenges. These included adapting the digestive system, enabling ruminal fermentation, and improving the digestion of nutrients through the intestine. Grains, which are full of carbohydrates, were considered to be the main source of energy in ruminants, leading to an excess in the growth of rumen epithelium. Corn grain was a major source of energy in ruminants as a digestible source. In comparison with other grains, the starch available in the corn grains was digested more slowly in the rumen. To use it to its full potential, its bio-availability should be increased so that a higher level of energy was released from the starch.

This experiment was performed in the Astan Qods Razavi dairy farm, Mashhad, Iran. Forty Holstein calves, consisting of 20 male and 20 female, with an average birth weight of 42.4 Kg (± 4.3) were used from birth to 70 days. Calves were birth and immediately separated from their dam and weighting, then they were transferring to individual pen. On the third day, the calves were randomly assigned to one of two treatments. The experimental treatment included: 1) low starch, and 2) high starch. All calves received colostrum for 3 d and then whole milk at 15% of body weight in the two equal meals, morning (5:00 A.M) and evening (15:00 P.M), until weaning. Calves’ accesses to water and starter ad libitum and starter was mixed with 5% of alfalfa hay chopped (% of DM). Composition of starter did not change throughout the experiment. Starter intake was record daily. Body weight determine every two weeks until the end of experiment. Fecal consistence was scored daily. Blood sample was harvested from jugular vein for collection of blood serum. Blood metabolites including: glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, albumin, total protein, ALT, AST, and urea were analyzed. Skeletal development was measured and recorded using special instruments on the 3, 56 and 70 days. Data were analyzed using SAS version 9.4 as a randomized completely design with GLM method and tendencies were reported at 0.05<P<0.10. Least square means for each treatment are reported in the tables and were separated using Tukeys test.

The results of this study showed that the use of the different level of starch had no significant effect on the starter feed intake, average daily gain, feed efficiency, fecal score and skeletal growth parameters of calves. Serum concentration of total protein, triglyceride, albumin, cholesterol, urea. ALT, and AST not affected by experimental treatments. ADG was not influenced by treatment in experiment. Our results are consistent with the observations of Zhang et al. (2010). There were no treatment effects on the blood parameters measured over time, which aligns with the findings of Soltani et al. (2020).The treatments did not affect fecal scores, as reported in the studies by Soltani et al. (2020). There were no significant differences in the initial, daily change, and final parameters, which is similar to the findings of Soltani et al. (2020). Additionally, starter intake, total dry matter intake (DMI), and weaning body weight (BW) were not affected by the experimental diets. This result is consistent with the observations of Lesmeister and Heinrichs (2004).

The result of this study showed that different levels of starch had no marked effects on body weight, daily feed intake, feed efficiency, fecal score, skeletal growth and blood metabolites.

Environmental pollution, including pollution caused by urban and industrial sewage, factories and vehicles, causes pollution of natural resources in the environment, including water and fodder. The entry of these elements into the body of animals and their accumulation increases their concentration in products and enters the human food chain. Contamination of milk, meat and other edible tissues of animals with heavy metals is also a worrying issue and threatens food hygiene and human health because these elements are not naturally present in edible tissues and even very small amounts of them can be cause severe side effects. Scientists have mentioned the main cause of contamination of meat and animal tissues is feeding them from contaminated fodder sources or rearing them near contaminated areas. In the studies conducted in different countries, the amounts of heavy elements were more than allowed. In order to investigate the amounts of heavy metals including lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic and nickel in milk and body tissues of dairy cows in North Khorasan province, two experiments were conducted in three regions and the amounts of heavy metals in milk and body tissues of dairy cows using the device Inductively coupled plasma-atomic diffusion (ICP) was measured, and studied.In the first experiment, three dairy cattle farms were selected from three regions, two farms were located in two regions at equal distances from large industries, and the third region was selected as a control region far from large industries. In each of the farms, 10 dairy cows (5 first lactation and 5 second lactation and above) was sampled and the amounts of elements were measured. In the second experiment, muscle, heart, liver, kidney and lung tissues were sampled from 5 dairy cows from each region that were removed and sent to the slaughterhouse for reasons such as mastitis and reproductive problems. Heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic and nickel, were measured in the tissues by an inductively coupled atomic diffusion plasma (ICP) device. The initial experiment's findings indicate that the levels of arsenic, cadmium, and lead in the milk of Holstein cows remained unaffected by varying regions. However, there were significant regional impacts on the levels of chromium and nickel in the milk of Holstein cows. Furthermore, the concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, nickel, and lead in the milk of Holstein cows were not influenced by the age of the cows or the interaction between region and age. In contrast, the concentration of chromium exhibited sensitivity to age and the interaction between region and age. These nuanced insights highlight the diverse influences on trace metal concentrations in Holstein cow milk, providing valuable information for understanding regional and age-related variations. The amount of arsenic, cadmium and lead metals in the thigh muscle tissue of Holstein cows in different regions was not significantly affected by regions. However, the amount of chromium and nickel in the thigh muscle tissue was significantly affected in different areas. The amount of arsenic, chromium, nickel and lead in the heart tissue was not significant in any of the regions (Shirvan, Esfrayen and Bojnoord). The amount of cadmium in the heart tissue of Holstein cows was significantly affected by different regions. Thus, the highest amount of cadmium in heart tissue was observed in Bojnord region and the lowest in Esfrayen region. The amount of chromium, nickel and lead in the tissue of all Holstein cows in different regions was not affected. However, the amount of arsenic and cadmium in the kidney tissue was significantly affected in different areas (Shirvan, Esfrayen and Bojnoord). Based on the obtained results, there was no significant difference in the amount of arsenic, cadmium and lead in lung tissue in different regions. However, the amount of chromium and nickel in the lung tissue of Holstein cows was significantly affected in different regions. Chromium enters various environmental sources (air, water and soil) from a wide range of natural and human sources, the most of which is emitted from industrial activities. When heavy metals are present in the air, feed and water of animals, they eventually accumulate in their tissues. While the levels of heavy metals did not exhibit significant differences across many investigated areas, it is noteworthy that the concentrations surpassed the standard values established for these metals in products like milk. The elevated concentrations raise concerns about the potential health implications associated with consuming products containing such heightened metal levels. An interesting observation emerges from the examination of elemental concentrations in tissues, irrespective of regions and distances. The lead element, in particular, demonstrated the highest concentrations, with the liver exhibiting the most notable accumulation compared to other tissues. This underscores the need for strategic interventions, and the consideration of solutions such as the application of absorbents to mitigate metal concentrations in dairy cattle products emerges as a viable recommendation. Implementing such measures could play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and compliance of dairy products with established standards.

Heat stress in most parts of the world has a negative effect on the performance of dairy cows and reduces milk production in dairy cows. Supplementation of cows with micronutrients (minerals and vitamins), especially in the close up period, can have benefits in reducing the negative effects of heat stress and improve the yield of cows during the next lactation period. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of some nutrients on the physiological and performance processes of dairy cows in heat stress.

In this research, 24 multiparous dairy cows were used in the transition period. The cows were randomly divided into 2 groups of 12 and each group was assigned to a test treatment. Treatments include control group: only from the common diet and without nutritious additives and the second group, which in addition to the common diet, received a micronutrients for 21 days before parturition. After parturition, each of the control and treatment groups were again subdivided into two groups of 6, so that in each group, they were either fed with diets without micronutrients or enriched with micronutrients until 21 days after parturition.The supplement containing a micronutrient of the close up period, including micronutrients of selenium, copper, zinc, chromium, beta carotene, vitamin E, magnesium, ascorbic acid and niacin and the micronutrient supplementation of the freshly period in addition to the micronutrient above, contained sodium and potassium. The average temperature- humidity index was during the text period of 74 and cows were heat stress. The conditions of maintenance and management of nutrition and environment were the same for all the animals during the whole experiment period. Weight variations, feed intake and rectal temperature were determined each week 4 hours after feed intake in two consecutive days. The weight of the newborn calves, the weight of the placenta and the amount of colostrum produced during the first three milking was recorded.

The amount of dry matter intake during close up was higher in the micronutrient intake group than the control group, and in the last week of pregnancy there was a significant difference between them (P<0/05). Although weight gain during the close up was not affected by treatment, more weight gain was observed in the group receiving micronutrients. The numbers of pregnant days in cows receiving micronutrients were longer than the control group. The birth weight of calves in cows receiving micronutrients was higher than the control group. colostrum was also more produced in this group. Calves weaning weight was not affected by treatments. Feed intake during the lactating period was affected in the first week of lactation and receiving micronutrients transition period treatment in the third week had the highest feed intake, which in parallel with this week the milk production of this group was higher than other groups and its difference with other treatments was significant(P<0/05). Milk composition were not affected by treatments (P>0/05).

This experiment showed that heat stress can have a negative effect on the performance of dairy cows during the transition period and the use of micronutrients in this period can have beneficial effects on the repair of heat stress in dairy cows.

 Raising healthy calves is indeed a critical concern in the dairy industry. Close up diets have important effects on the quantity and quality of produced colostrum, on the other hand, colostrum and milk are considered the most important sources of food that contain energy, protein, and other nutrients for the newborn calf’s growth. Including fatty acids in the late pregnancy supplements are controversial because of the potential reduction of cows DMI. Also, the growth and health of calves can be influenced by feeding linoleic acid to pregnant cows. Safflower as a rich source of linoleic acid (55-70%) is a significant oil alternative product, and has a high nutritional value. This study aimed to examine the effects of safflower seeds and palmitic fatty acids on the transition diet in cow feed consumption, colostrum quality, blood parameters, body measurements and Holstein calf performance.

Materials and methods :

Thirty pregnant Holstein cows, 15 primiparous and 15 multiparous, were used 21 days prior to the expected calving date. The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized experimental design with three treatments and ten replicates in every treatment. Cows were randomly assigned to experimental treatments so that each treatment have an average body weight 659.34 ± 84.2 kg, parity 2.04 ± 1.31 and body condition score (BCS) 3.23 ± 0.15 The experimental rations have similar energy and protein content. Diets were thoroughly mixed and fed to cows based on the recommendations of the US National Research Council (NRC, 2001). The experimental rations included: 1) Control diet without fat source (Ctrl), 2) Diet with palmitic fatty acid (SFA), and 3) Diet with safflower seed (UFA). Daily feed intake was calculated by subtracting distributed feed to every cow from the leftover amount on following day. Newborn calves were weighed immediately after birth. An individual colostrum yield for every cow was recorded at each milking. The quality of colostrum was determined using an optical refractometer (ATC., China). The body weight and skeletal parameters of calves were evaluated at birth day, 21 d, and 49 d. Blood samples were taken immediately after birth, two hours after colostrum feeding and on days 3, 7, 21, and 49 via the jugular vein. Samples were centrifuged at 3000× g and the plasma was stored at −20°C until analysis. Plasma metabolites were analyzed using an autoanalyzer (Alcyon 300., USA). Colostrum composition (fat, protein, lactose, solids, solids not fat) was determined using a Milkoscan (Foss Electric, Hillerød, Denmark). Fatty acids profile were measured according to O'Fallon (2007) et al., using gas chromatography (GC) equipped FID detector and 100 meter column. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS using a completely randomized design with ten replications.

  Results and Discussion:

 Using sources of SFA (palm oil powder) and UFA (safflower seeds) in the transition diets were not affected on dry matter intake in Holstein dairy cows (P>0.05). Dry matter intake in Ctrl, SFA, and UFA were 10.29, 10.98, and 10.80 kg per day, respectively. We found that  using SFA and UFA did not have any significant effect on colostrum parameters such as colostrum volume, the percentage of fat, protein, lactose, total solids, fat not solids, and also, immunoglobulin concentration, and Brix number of colostrum (P>0.05). The colostrum volume in UFA and SFA treatments was higher than in the Ctrl treatment, but this difference was not significant (5.82, 5.23, and 4.19 kg, respectively). According to the results, the researchers stated that adding raw and processed safflower seeds to the diet did not have any significant effect on milk production, milk fat, protein, and lactose in Holstein dairy cows (Paya and Taghizadeh, 2020). Feeding omega-6 sources in the transition period (35 days before calving) caused higher colostrum protein and Brix values (Salehi et al., 2016) but was not consistent with our results. Feeding palm fat powder as a source of SFA and safflower seeds as UFA did not have any significant differences in concentration of short chain, medium chain, and long chain fatty acids in colostrum. It was reported that various fat sources in the rations of dairy and transition cows did not affect colostrum fatty acid and milk fatty acid. However some studies showed that different fat sources in the diet of dairy cows changed the fatty acid profile in milk. In general, it can be stated that because of the high-producing dairy cows experience a negative energy around calving, the diet energy meets the requirements, which probably causes the fatty acid composition of the colostrum not to be affected. Our results showed that blood factors such as glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, blood urea nitrogen, ALT, AST, total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde, total protein, albumin, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and HDL did not differ between treatments. It was observed that the addition of SFA and UFA had no significant effect on the birth weight of calves, weight at d 21 and 49, and dry matter intake during the experimental period. Skeletal parameters such as hip height and width, withers height, chest circumference, and body length at 3, 21, and 49 days had no significant differences in the treatments.

  Conclusion:

 It seems that using saturated and unsaturated fatty acids sources in the transition diets did not reduce feed intake. Moreover, it had no significant influence on the calves' performance, bone condition, the colostrum's quality and the colostrum fatty acids profile.

Precise and on-time diagnosis of the udder’s diseases is important, because of their economic importance. Udder structures like teat, parenchyma, and supramammary lymph nodes can be evaluated by ultrasonography.

The study aimed to evaluate the ultrasonographic technique for imaging the supramammary lymph nodes and udder’s tissue in Saanen goats and the relation between the findings of ultrasonography and subclinical mastitis.

Thirty milking Saanen goats were evaluated in the study. Milk sampling from each teat was performed under standard conditions for bacteriological culture and somatic cell count (SCC). A 7.5 MHz linear transducer was used for the ultrasonography of teats with the water bath technique, and supramammary lymph nodes and udder’s tissues were imaged using a 10 MHz linear transducer with direct contact. The length, height, area, and echogenicity of each lymph node and the teat canal wall diameter were measured using ImageJ 1.47v on the ultrasonography scanned images and analyzed by SPSS software.

There was no significant relationship between the dimension of the supramammary lymph nodes and SCC or culture. Age had a positive relationship with lymph node size. No significant relationship was seen between the size of the supramammary lymph node before and after the treatment. Supramammary lymph nodes’ echogenicity of the quarter with subclinical mastitis and healthy ones represented no significant difference before and after the treatment.

Ultrasonography of the udder, teat, mammary gland, and supramammary lymph nodes is a safe and non-invasive method for visualizing separate structures. The positive relationship between SCC and milk echogenicity as well as supramammary lymph nodes dimension, and age was described.

One of the most important factors in the profitability of dairy farms is effective management methods in keeping and feeding infant calves. Several factors such as underdeveloped immune system and environmental stress can increase the survival power of the animal. Researchers suggest different factors can to improve the immune system of neonatal calves, including the use of fat-soluble vitamins and unsaturated fatty acids. While these vitamins play a major role in the immune system of animals, the supply of fat-soluble vitamins in the calf's diet is essential for promotion the normal growth of muscles and the skeleton of the body. Common symptoms of a deficiency in fat-soluble vitamins in neonatal calves include retardation of growth, and susceptibility to infectious diseases.

This experiment was performed in the farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Twenty-eight Holstein female calves with an average bodyweight of 37.74 kg (± 4.76) were used from birth to 56 days of age. On the fourth day, the calves were randomly assigned to one of four treatments.  All calves received colostrum for the first 3 d and then whole milk at 8% of bodyweight in the two-equal part in the morning (4.00 A.M) and evening (16 P.M) until weaning. The experimental treatments included: 1) whole milk with starter (Control), 2) control diet supplemented with flax seed oil (0.3 ml per kilogram of body weight), 3) control diet and weekly injection of 7 cc of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D3, E), 4) control diet which supplemented with flaxseed oil (0.3 ml per kilogram of body weight) plus weekly injection of 7 cc of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D3, E). Flax seed oil was mixed into milk (morning feeding) until weaning. During the experiment period, calves had ad libitum access to starter diet and water. Blood sample were harvested from jugular vein for collection of full blood for Complete Blood Count (CBC) test and blood serum metabolites. Serum was stored in -20 centigrade until further analysis. Complete blood count (CBC) test was performed to determine the number of blood cells white blood cells, red blood cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, granulocytes, hemoglobin and hematocrit. Serum blood metabolites, total protein, creatinine, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, albumin, liver enzymes (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase), antioxidant capacity (malondialdehyde and total antioxidant capacity) were analyzed using Alpha Classic autoanalyzer. Data were analyzed using SAS version 9.4 as a completely randomized design experiment. For all results, significant differences between treatments were declared at P≤ 0.05 and tendencies were declared at 0.05 < P≤ 0.10. Least square means for each treatment are reported in the tables and were separated using Tukey-kramer test.

The results of this study showed that the use of flaxseed oil and injection of fat-soluble vitamins during preweaning had no significant effect on the Serum concentrations of total protein, creatinine, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, malondialdehyde, total antioxidant capacity and had no significant effect on the starter feed intake, daily weight gain, rectal temperature of calves. Calves received flax seed oil and fat-soluble vitamins injection had the highest Red blood cells, White blood cells, Hematocrit, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils and hemoglobin concentration. Claves received flaxseed oil and fat-soluble vitamins injection have the highest serum cholesterol concentration (P<0.00).

The results of this study indicated that inclusion of flaxseed oil and injection of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E) had no significant effect on blood serum parameters such as total protein, creatinine, albumin, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, malondialdehyde and total antioxidant capacity, but partially improved the immune system (white blood cells, monocytes, eosinophils) and reduces liver enzymes such as aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, which indicates an increase in animal health.

The aim of this research was to investigate the interaction effect of ruminally undegradable protein (RUP) level and flaxseed type in flushing diets of ewes on reproductive performance and ovarian activity. Seventy-two Baluchi ewes (2-3 years old) were fed one of six experimental diets. The experimental diets were: 1) diet without flaxseed with 20% RUP; 2) diet without flaxseed with 40% RUP; 3) diet containing 10% whole flaxseed with 20% RUP; 4) diet containing10% whole flaxseed with 40% RUP; 5) diet containing 10% extruded flaxseed with 20% RUP and 6) diet containing10% extruded flaxseed with 40% RUP. Dry matter intake of ewes was not affected by experimental diets. Flaxseed type significantly increased glucose, cholesterol and estrogen concentrations in 24 h before removing CIDR, and 24 hours after removing CIDR, caused a significant increase in glucose and estrogen concentration and a significant decrease in blood urea concentration of ewes (P ≤ 0.05). Increasing RUP level to 40%, significantly increased glucose and estrogen and decreased urea concentrations of ewes in 24 hours after removing CIDR (P ≤ 0.05). The diets containing of extruded flaxseed showed the highest serum progesterone concentration in 8 days after mating and finally, higher lambing rates compared to control diets. Finally, the use of flaxseed (especially in extruded form) at 10%DM with 40% RUP in flushing diets, increased the metabolites and hormones concentration associated with reproductive performance, especially glucose, cholesterol, progesterone and estrogen, and thus improves the reproductive performance of the animal.

 To date, there is not any accurate estimation of calf mortality in the world; however, annual pre-weaning calves’ mortality was estimated to be around 7.8, 6.5, 5.5, and 2.6% in the United States, Iran, China, and Sweden, respectively. Raboisson et al. (2013) represented that most neonatal calf mortality happens at age under one month. Hill et al. (2011) reported that nutritional factors could modulate the calf immune system's functions. Studies on non-ruminants confirm that the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) relating to the n-3 FA can affect the immune response. In calves’ nutrition, using PUFA in milk or milk replacer (MR) had a pleasant effect on immune responses and antioxidant status. Supplementation n-3 FA, especially EPA and DHA, would increase the proportion of PUFA in the membrane phospholipids, which might change the performance of the immune system. The n-3 PUFA plays a critical role in influencing the immune system through various mechanisms described in detail by Calder (2012). Previous studies showed that adding n-3 PUFA to milk or MR decreases the symptoms of diarrhea and inflammatory diseases caused by viral or bacterial infections. So far, there are not enough reports regarding dietary n-3 PUFA on the APR in neonatal calves. Nevertheless, most research regarding FO supplementation and its anti-inflammatory effects on neonatal calves' health has been done on long-term consumption. As earlier mentioned, most calf mortality occurs at the first 30 days of age; consequently, long-term (more than one month) consumption of FO might not provide clear evidence to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of FO on the status of neonatal calves’ health. Therefore, the purpose of this study was the first evaluation of short-term supplementation of n-3 PUFA on the APR of neonatal calves.

Twenty-four bull calves, with a mean age of 34.5  3.7 days, were housed outdoors in individual pens bedded with wheat straw at the dairy farm facilities of Astan Quds Razavi Animal Husbandry and Agriculture Co. (Mashhad, Iran) in February 2019. The criteria for calf selection were, namely, the type of calf delivery (without any difficulty) and no history of disease or diarrhea. To achieve a quantitative similarity between calves, we used age and body weight as further criteria. The experiment's duration was 11 days (a week before LPS challenge and three days after LPS challenge) with an adaptation period (seven days). After the adaptation period, calves were weighed (57.5 ± 4.4 kg) and randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups (six calves/group). Randomized calves received treatments during the study period according to the group they were already allocated: 1. negative control group (NC), 2. Positive control group (LPS challenge, PC), 3. Tallow 350 mg/kg BW group + LPS (TA), 4. Fish oil 350 mg/kg BW group + LPS (FO). All calves were fed the same diet, 5 L/d of whole milk, and had free access to freshwater during the experiment. The PC, FO, and TA groups were intravenously challenged with 0.5 μg/kg BW ultrapure LPS from E. coli serotype O111:B4 (Sigma–Aldrich: registered; product NO. L2630) on day eight. Treatments FO and TA were mixed with whole milk and were offered two times a day (at 0800 and 1700). FO and TA groups were isocaloric to compare the effect of manipulating fatty acid intake in the same level of energy intake on the APR of neonatal calves. The blood samples were collected at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 h, post LPS challenge (p.c.) to evaluate inflammatory condition. The clinical signs (RT, RR, and HR) were recorded at 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 18, 24 h p.c. According to Plessers et al.'s (2015) model, the appearance of behavioral phases (respiratory, depression, and recovery phase) was assessed. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design by using JMP (13.2) software.

The results of this study confirm previous experiments that showed a significant increase of cytokines level by the LPS administration (26, 29). As expected, the IL-6 increased when the TNF-α decreased (Maximal level at 3 and 1 h p.c., respectively). There was no significant difference in cytokines and APPs between PC, FO, and TA, while the FO had the minimum level. The typical sickness behavior of LPS-challenged calves was distinguished as respiratory, depression, and recovery phases according to Plessers et al.'s (2015) model. In this study, there was no significant effect of decreasing n-6/n-3 FA ratio on sickness behavior. Besides, the level of inflammatory cytokines and acute-phase proteins were not affected by experimental groups. These results were in line with McDonnell et al., (2019) reported no FO effect on immune function during the pre-weaning period. Although the level of DHA + EPA requirement for calves has not been well known, studies represented that their highest level in humans is 5 g/d. Stanley et al. (2007) concluded that the n-6/n-3 FA ratio might not be a helpful concept and distracts attention from increasing absolute intakes of long-chain n-3 FA. In this regard, Flaga et al. (2019) represented that DHA-rich algae supplementation in milk replacer could decrease cytokines' mRNA expression. They suggested that 3 g/d DHA might be the maximum level in neonatal calves’ diet with an appropriate effect on the immune system. In the current study, NC, PC, and TA received 2 mg/d, and FO received 3 g/d DHA. It might be worthwhile considering the amount of DHA + EPA when FO is used as an n-3 PUFA source in calves’ diet.

The results showed that decreasing the n6/n3 FA ratio in diets by supplementing FO could not affect acute phase response in calves. Besides, short-term supplementation of FO could not improve calves' immune systems as no differences in cytokines and APP between PC and FO were observed. Although sickness behavior in FO finished sooner than PC, there was no significant difference between them. In this study, increasing MUFA intake could not affect APR in calve. It seems that more studies are needed to evaluate the effect of EPA and DHA on the performance and health status of calves.

Proper nutrition management during calf rearing is one of the most important factors which influence herd profitability. Environmental stressors and immature immune system of calves, reduce the viability of the animal. Today, attempts are being made to increase immune system postnatal calf life in various ways. Supplying unsaturated fats, which have double bonds on their structure, in starter diet, is one of the suggested solutions to improve the calf’s immune system. Infant ruminants do not have the ability to biosynthesize fat-soluble vitamins (A, D3, E), while these vitamins play a major role in the animal's immune system and their performance. Supplying fat-soluble vitamins in the calves’ diets is critical for the normal growth of muscles and the body skeleton, as they have an improvement role to improve the immune system in animals. The common symptoms of a fat soluble vitamin deficiency in suckling calves are growth retardation, coarse hair, and susceptibility to infectious diseases. In this experiment, twenty eight Holstein female calves with an average weight of 37.74 kg (± 4/76) were used from birth to 56 days. After birth claves were separated from their dam and after weighing they transferred to individual pen. On the fourth day, the calves were randomly assigned to one of four treatments.  All calves received colostrum for the first 3 d and then whole milk at 8% of bodyweight in the two equal part in the morning (4.00 A.M) and evening (16 P.M) until weaning. The experimental treatments included: 1) control: whole milk with starter 2) control diet supplemented with flaxseed oil (0.3ml per kilogram of body weight) 3) control diet and weekly injection of 7 cc of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D3, E) 4) The control diet which supplemented with flaxseed oil (0.3ml per kilogram of body weight) plus weekly injection of 7 cc of fat-soluble vitamins.  Flaxseed oil was mixed into milk (morning feeding) until weaning. During the experiment period, calves had ad libitum access to chopped alfalfa hay and starter diet. Water from a plastic bucket (7 liters), filled twice a day, and was provided throughout the study. Composition of starter did not change throughout the experiment. Starter intake was recorded daily. Body weight gain determined weekly until the end of experiment. Fecal consistencies were scored twice a day. Blood sample were harvested from jugular vein for collection of blood serum. Blood metabolites, glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides were analyzed using commercially available colorimetric and enzymatic assay kits. Data were analyzed using SAS version 9.4 as a randomized completely randomized design experiment. For all results, significant differences between treatments were reported at P≤ 0.05 and tendencies were reported at 0.05 < P≤ 0.10. Least square means for each treatment are reported in the tables and were separated using Tukey’s test. The results of this study showed that the use of flaxseed oil and injection of fat-soluble vitamins during pre-weaning period had no significant effect on the starter feed intake, daily weight gain, rectal temperature and skeletal growth parameters of calves.Serum concentrations of total protein, triglyceride, creatinine and urea were not affected by experimental treatments. Claves received flaxseed oil and fat soluble vitamins injection tended to have the lowest serum glucose concentration (P<0.10). Calves received flax seed oil and fat soluble vitamins injection had the highest cholesterol concentration. The results of this study indicated that inclusion of flaxseed oil and injection of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E) had no any marked effects on weight gain, daily feed intake and skeletal bone growth.

Investigation of fermentation parameters by gas production method is one of the common methods for evaluating feeds and can be a reflection of the fermentation pattern in the rumen. The gas production method in a relatively short time can evaluate the fermentation process of feeds and a large number of samples, and also used to determine the quantity and quality of value and digestion rate of a feed. In recent years, the flaxseed and its oil, due to high concentration of α-linolenic acid extremely considered and used as a fat supplementation in diets of ruminant, but one of the most important concerns in the nutrition of oilseeds is the negative effects of their unsaturated fatty acids on ruminal fermentation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the digestibility, gas and microbial protein production of diets with different forms of flaxseed (whole, grounded and extruded) and the high (40%) and low (20%) levels of rumen undegradable protein (RUP).

Two hundred mg of each feed sample was incubated with ruminal fluid with buffer and gas production was measured at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h. The experimental diets were: 1) diet no flaxseed + 20% RUP; 2) diet no flaxseed + 40% RUP; 3) diet containing 10% whole flaxseed + 20% RUP; 4)diet containing 10% whole flaxseed + 40% RUP; 5) diet containing10% grounded flaxseed + 20% RUP; 6) diet containing10% grounded flaxseed + 40% RUP; 7) diet containing10% extruded flaxseed + 20% RUP, and 8)diet containing 10% extruded flaxseed + 40% RUP.

The results showed that the amount of gas production during 96 hours incubation was higher with control diets compared to other diets (255.8 vs 217.8, 198.1 and 200.4 ml/g DM, P=0.001) and also at 20% RUP level (255.5 vs 210.1 ml/g DM, P=0.049). True digestibility of control diets (684 vs 568, 619 and 538 mg/g DM) and NH3-Nof diets containing grounded flaxseed compared to other diets (1.12 vs 0.41, 0.49 and 0.21 mg), was higher (P>0.05), but microbial nitrogen production by diets containing grounded flaxseed compared to other diets (2.72 vs 3.29, 3.36 and 3.45 mg), was lower (P>0.01). The disappeared DM (161.6 vs 149.9 mg), neutral detergent insoluble nitrogen (1.63 vs 1.35 mg) and NH3-N (0.76 vs 0.35 mg) with 40% RUP, and microbial nitrogen production (3.48 vs 2.93 mg) in 20%RUP (P>0.05), was higher.

Since one of the main objectives of the present experiment was to examine the production of microbial protein in experimental diets, diets containing whole and extruded flaxseed despite their low digestibility, but showed higher microbial protein production. On the other hand, 20% RUP level also showed the highest amount of gas and microbial protein production. So, it seems from an economic point of view as well as the performance of the diets, using a diet containing 10% extruded flaxseed along with 20% RUP can be beneficial and effective.

Providing the energy and protein in the diet of livestock, due to the high cost of its sources makes the highest cost of feed. Therefore, new and cheap domestic resources should be used in order to reduce costs and independency. Lathyrus sativus as a source of protein has been used in ruminants’ diet and because of similar amino acids profile to soybean meal can be used instead of soybean meal in ruminants’ diet. The protein content of Lathyrus sativus is 25.6-35.9 % of its dray matter. It is also reported that heat-processed soybeans are used as an important source of protein and energy in ruminants because heating reduces the breakdown of protein in the rumen and the passage of essential amino acids into the intestine (5). On the other hand, the reduction of anti-nutrients due to heat treatment, especially extrusion in soybean, has been reported in several studies. There is limited information about the effect of heat-processing on the nutritional value of Lathyrus sativus. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the chemical composition, anti-nutrients, extent and rate of gas production and protein digestibility of Lathyrus sativus treated with different heat-processing by in vitro and in situ experiments.

The Lathyrus sativus seed were processed by 1) Autoclave at 120 ˚C, 2) Oven at 100 ˚C, 3) Extruding at 110 ˚C, 4) Roasting on direct heat, 5) Furnace at 120 ˚C and 6) Furnace at 200 ˚C. Chemical composition including dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, crude fat, calcium and phosphorus was performed using AOAC methods. Tannin and total phenolic compounds were meseared by Folin and Ciocalteu (12). Extent and rate of gas production were done based on Menk and Stingas. Mobile nylon bag technique was applied for determination of protein digestibility in the romen and intestine. Data were analyzed using GLM procedure of SAS using a completely randomized design with 5 replications.

Dry matter, ash, crude protein, crude energy, crude fat, calcium and phosphorus were not affected by different processing methods (P <0.05). However the amount of acid detergent fiber (ADF) and natural detergent fiber (NDF) with heat processing methods was significantly lower than non-processing method (P <0.05). Autoclaving and extrusion of Lathyrus sativus reduced the amount of phenolic compounds compared to the control (P <0.05). In addition, the furnace at 120 ° C and roasting even more than autoclaving and extrusion reduced the total phenolic compounds. The amount of gas production during various hours and its rate were significantly affected by the different processing procedures (P<0.05). At the initial hours (2 and 8 h) of incubation, the amount of gas produced in Lathyrus sativus unprocessed and processed in oven 100 ˚C was higher than autoclave 120 ˚C, furnace 120 ˚C, and roasted seeds. Extruded seeds were reduced gas production in initial hours than any other processed methods except those put in the furnace 200 ˚C. The Lathyrus sativus placed in 200 ˚C furnace severely diminished gas production of the incubation at primary hours. The extruded Lathyrus sativus showed higher gas at the 12th and 24th hours of incubation compared with primary hours. This trend continued up to the 96th hour of incubation. The results of gas production had conformity with rumen and intestine digestibility. It seems that the steam pressure in extrude and autoclave process can influence Lathyrus sativus fermentation. This effect in extrude process was higher than autoclave. The rumen and intestine dry matter and protein digestibility in extruded process was higher than the others. Lathyrus sativus with no process, at oven 100 ˚C and furnace 200 ˚C were shown equal dry matter and protein digestibility. The findings of the present research revealed that extruding, autoclaving and roasting procedures lead to increase of dry matter through decreasing water content and that it had no significant effect on other chemical composition. Also, the findings showed that place of Lathyrus sativus in furnace 200 ˚C decreased ADF and NDF Lathyrus sativus which might be due to the removal of some of the shells in this processing. Consequently, the process of extruding, autoclaving and roasting reduced the rapid part degradation of dry matter and protein of Lathyrus sativus and caused the slow part of degradation to increase, which is in consistent to other researcher about increasing of intestine protein digestibility in extruded and roasted soybean seed.

Extruded, autoclaved and roasted Lathyrus sativus with the reduction of the amount of ruminal disappearance and the increase of the post ruminal digestibility of dry matter and crude protein transferred the place of the digestion of protein from the rumen to the small intestines. In furnace 200 ˚C, due to the intense denaturation of the protein or the formation of a protein-carbohydrate complex, the digestibility of dry matter and crude protein of Lathyrus sativus in the rumen and intestine was reduced. In addition, the results of our studies in confirming the studies of others reduced the concentration of total tannin and total phenolic compounds in Lathyrus sativus.

Recently, pistachio by-products (PBP) have been used to reduce production costs in ruminant nutrition. However, the tannins and phenolic compounds in PBP as anti-nutritional compounds limit the use of this agricultural by-product in ruminant diets. Therefore, nutritionists recommend the use of tannin-binding compounds such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) in diets with high tannins contain. It has also been shown that sodium bentonite can be used as a tannin inactivator in the diet of ruminants. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of supplementation of polyethylene glycol or activated sodium bentonite (ASB) on feed intake, vital signs, biochemical and hematological parameters of Saanen goats fed pistachio by-products under heat stress.

Fifteen Saanen male goats were assigned to three treatment groups in a completely randomized design. The experimental period lasted 30 days (25 days for the period before heat stress and 5 days for heat stress). Three experimental diets consisted of a diet containing 30% DM pistachio by-products with no additive (control); the control diet supplemented with PEG at 1% of DM (PEG group), and the control diet supplemented with activated sodium bentonite at 1% of DM (ASB group). To measure dry matter intake, the amount of feed residue was recorded daily. Goats were also weighed at the end of each week to examine weight changes. To measure ruminal pH, on the last day of the experiment and 2 hours after morning feed consumption, ruminal pH was recorded with a pH meter. Heart rate, respiration rate (per minute), and rectal temperature were measured during the last three days of the stress period to record vital signs. Also, on the last day of the experiment, two series of blood samples (5 ml) were collected from the jugular vein to determine biochemical and hematological parameters. Data were statistically analyzed using GLM procedure and SAS 9.1 software.

The results showed that the amount of DMI in the control treatment was higher than other groups (P <0.05). Rumen pH was not affected by treatments (P≤0.05). In terms of vital signs, heart rate and respiration in PEG treatment were higher than other treatments (P <0.05). No significant differences were observed between treatments in terms of blood biochemical parameters (P≤0.05). However, according to hematological parameters, the concentration of monocytes, eosinophils, and fibrinogen in PEG treatment were lower than other treatments (P <0.05). Besides, hormonal parameters showed that Cortisol concentration in PEG treatment was significantly higher than other groups (P <0.05).

In conclusion, the use of activated sodium bentonite in diets containing 30% PBP to feed goats under short-term heat stress can increase the monocyte concentration and strengthen the immune system in these animals without adversely affecting DMI, vital factors, and animal welfare.

The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of adding fat powder and flaxseed oil in milk on performance, growth, health, blood and rumen parameters of 45 suckling calves (avarage body weight = 38 ± 0.5 kg) in a compeletly randomized design in 10℃ of average temperature from d 3 to 30 of age in individual boxes. Experimental treatments included: 1- basal starter and milk without fat supplement (control) 2- basal starter and milk with fat powder (10 g/liter of milk) 3- basal starter and milk with flaxseed oil (10 g/liter of milk). Daily weight gain from d 3 to 30 and weight at d 30 were higher in flaxseed oil treatment than control treatment (P ≤ 0.05). Calves fed flaxseed oil treatment had higher hip height than control treatment at d 30 (P ≤ 0.05). Blood cholesterol concentration was higher in control treatmentthan flaxseed oil treatment and blood cortisol concentration was lower in flaxseed oil treatment than control treatment (P ≤ 0.05). The ratio oftotal protein to albumin in flaxseed oil treatment was lower than control treatment (P ≤ 0.05). Ruminal parameters were not affected by the experimental treatments. The results of this research indicated that using of fat sources including linolenic acid as flaxseed oil in milk have a positive effect on the performance, growth and health during the first month after birth of dairy calves.

Corn grain represents the most important energy source in ruminant diets. In high-producing dairy cows, the diets contain high levels of corn in order to meet their energy requirements. Corn has a complex structure where a range of nutrients interact with each other or physically associations. Ultimately, the quantity and availability of these nutrients determines the nutritional value of this grain. In corn nutrients and energy utilization is influenced by both intrinsic (e.g. starch granules and protein matrix structure) and extrinsic (e.g. growing and storage conditions, climate and agronomy conditions and grain drying process) factors. Corn endosperm represents more than 80% of total grain and is composed of starch granules that are imbedded in a protein matrix and surrounded by plant cell walls. Starch granules size, starch composition (amylose/amylopectin ratio), starch encapsulation (by endosperm cell walls and protein bodies) are among the factors with the most influence on digestion of starch. The structure and distribution of starch and protein matrix network of grains vary in different corn varieties. The Objectives of this study were to evaluate physical and chemical properties, gas fermentation parameters, starch digestibility and starch granules structure in Iranian corn grain Single cross 702 in comparison with different kind of imported corn grains (Russia, Ukraine and Brazil).  

 Corn grain samples (Single cross 702, Russia, Ukraine and Brazil) were obtained from Khorasan Razavi Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, Mashhad, Iran. The apparent density was measured and the samples were analyzed for DM, OM, CP, EE, NDF, ADF, starch. Gas production was conducted in a 125 ml amber flask with three series of incubation. Gas production parameters were calculated. Also, rumen, intestine and total tract digestibility of DM, starch and CP were determined by using the in situ mobile bag procedure. Different parameters of damaged starch (the absorption of iodine, Ai%; damaged starch content in UCD, Chopin units; UCDc, Chopin units on protein basis matter) were determined using the amperometry method (Chopin, ZI Val de Sein, 92390 VLG, France). Starch gelatinization was determined according to the enzymatic procedure (AACC Method 76-31.01; K-SDAM, 09/2018). Scanning electron microscope (LEO 1450 VP, USA), at an accelerating voltage of 25 kV, and under 2500x magnification to study the grain structure was done. Data were analyzed by GLM procedure of SAS with a completely randomized design.

Apparent shape of Single cross 702 was smaller than other corn varieties. Apparent density was higher in Brazil corn than other corn varieties. DM, OM and EE were not shown significantly difference between corn varieties; however, CP, ADF, NDF, starch, NFC, TDN, NEg and NEl were significantly affected by different corn varieties. Starch in Single cross 702 corn (69.03%) was significantly lower than Russia (71.04%), Ukraine (70.36%) and Brazil (71.49%) corns. Asymptote gas production (A) was not influenced by different corn varieties; however, the real gas production in time 24 and 48 h incubation in Brazil, Russia and Single cross 702 corns was greater than Ukraine corn. The instant rate of gas production until 8 h incubation in Single cross 702 and Russia corns was greater than Ukraine and Brazil corns. The time for fermentation of 25 and 75% of substrate in Single cross 702 and Russia corns were significantly reduced than other corn varieties. The PH, NH3-N and total VFA of bath culture in 24 h didn’t influence by corn varieties, however acetate to propionate ratio in Brazil corn was greater than other corns. In spite of that the rumen starch digestibility of Single cross 702 (61.59%) and Russia (59.51%) was increased than Ukraine (45.31%) and Brazil (40.51%) corns; however, Ukraine (97/.06%) and Brazil (98.39%) corns showed the intestine starch digestibility greater than Single cross 702 (93.79%) and Russia (93.87 %) corns. The starch gelatinization in both of Single cross 702 (4.24%) and Russia (4.17%) was greater than Ukraine (3.78%) and Brazil (3.32%) corns. The scanning electron microscopy showed that the starch granules size was not uniform in the Single cross 702 corn and the number of small starch granules was greater than other corn varieties. Also, the thin protein matrix was observed in the Single cross 702 corn. In contrast, the starch granules size in the Russia and Ukraine corns were larger and uniform. In Brazil corn, the starch granules were arranged with greater density and a non-smooth surface was observed on the granules. Many studies were done on nutrient value of different corn varieties. Numerous factors can affect the grain chemical composition, physical properties and starch availability on corn grain that include cell wall structure, type of endosperm (floury or vitreous), starch granules and protein matrix, genetic and environment. Corns contain higher floury to horny starch ratio showed greater starch gelatinization and greater starch digestibility in the rumen and total tract. Findings of this study represent the Single cross 702 and Russia corns showed higher gas production, rate of gas production, starch gelatinization and rumen digestibility of starch than Brazil corn. Conclusion It is concluded that the Single cross 702 corn in terms of flurry endosperm, gas production, gas production rate, starch gelatinization and rumen digestibility of starch was similar to Russia corn, although the structure of starch granules was different. Brazil corn had a horny endosperm and showed lower rate of gas production in initial hours of incubation, lower starch gelatinization and higher intestine digestibility of starch than other corns. It generally seems that the result of this study and similar studies can offer useful information about corn grain for farmers and the animal feed manufactures for processing of corn.

Probiotics are live food micro-organisms and their positive effects on the microbial balance of the host animal have been proved. Prebiotics are indigestible carbohydrates that are not digestible in whole garter-intestinal tract of farm animals. Synbiotics are derived feed additive from the combination of probiotics and prebiotics. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of adding probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic through milk on the growth, intake and immune function of suckling calves.

Twenty four Holstein male calves with an average live body weight of 42 ± 3 kg were assigned to the following treatments based on their live body weight. 1) Control group: Normal milk feeding without any additive. 2) Normal milk feeding + 1.5 g per calf per day Protoxin probiotic (multivariate probiotic including 7 filament bacteria and 2 filament yeast at a concentration of 2 × 109 cfu / g). 3) Normal milk feeding + 5 g per calf per day Inulin prebiotic. 4) Normal Milk feeding + 1.5 g per calf per day Protexin + 5 g per calf per day Inulin. Calves were fed twice daily at 7 and 16 hours. The starter feed (Table 1) was fed to the experimental calves for 60 days. Water was available at all times. Table 1. Percentage of feed ingredients in the starter fed to calves Feed ingredient % Barely 26 % Corn 17 % Soybean meal 20 % Flax seed 10 % Wheat Bran 9 % Dried Sugar Beet Pulp 5 % Cottonseed 4 % Fish powder 4 % Cotton seed meal 3 % Salt 0.1 % Lime 0.1 % Di-calcium phosphate 0.1 % Bentonite 0.2 % Vitamin supplement( broiler ) 0.75 % Mineral supplement (broiler) 0.75 % All analyzes were performed based on ANOVA method using general linear modeling process and using SAS software. Results and Discussion Data analysis showed that there was a significant difference between the control group and the rest groups in terms of feed intake (Table 2). Table 2. The feed intake by the experimental calves (gram per calf per day) with or without additives Week of experiment Average feed intake by group of calves (fed with or without addetives) SE Control Inulin Protexin Synbiotic 2 49.83 55.5 83.33 84 0.84 3 189.17 196.67 177.83 197.5 0.82 4 550.5 566.67 600 617.5 1.64 5 651.33 696.67 639.83 695.83 1.37 6 747.83 747.17 699.5 768.33 1.31 7 1040 1147.5 1133.5 1195 2.33 The calves fed with multi strain probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic had significantly (p < 0.05) higher daily weight gain than control group (Table 3). But there was no significant difference between the calves fed by milk containing probiotic and prebiotic addetive. Table 3. Average daily weight gain of calves (gram per calf per day) during the experimental weeks Week Average Weight of group of calves (fed with or without addetive) SE Control Inulin Protexin Synbiotic 1 42.16 40.66 42.83 42.16 1.00 2 42.48 41.40 43.46 42.91 0.99 3 43.16 42.50 44.50 44 0.99 4 44.58 45 46.58 47 0.90 5 49.18 50.51 52.20 52.96 0.91 6 55 59.25 61.11 62.31 0.92 7 63 69.50 70.58 72.61 0.89 Fecal E.coli counts showed that calves receiving probiotic, prebiotic or synbiotic had a lower fecal E.coli count than the control group (Table 4). Table 4 – number of Escherichia coli (log cfu/g of wet digesta) in feces of the experimental calves Week Average E.coli count (log cfu/g) of group of calves (fed with or without addetives) SE Control Inulin Protexin Synbiotic 7.67c 7.67c 7.68a 7.65b 7.57ab 0.033 7.68b 7.68b 7.64a 7.62a 7.54a 0.041 7.71b 7.71b 7.61b 7.58b 7.51a 0.036 Serum and blood plasma biochemical data showed that there was a significant difference in neutrophil and lymphocyte rates in different time intervals, but no significant difference was observed in monocyte (Table 5). Table 5 - blood variables characteristics in calves fed with / without additives SE Group of experimental calves Blood variable Sampling day Synbiotic Protexin Inulin Control 2.62 32.8 28 27 31.33 Neutrophil% 14 2.88 64.83 70.66 72.66 67.33 Lymphocyte% 1.93 29 30.16 30.16 27.33 Neutrophil% 42 2.43 66.67 69.5 69.83 69 Lymphocyte%

Addition multi-strain probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic to whole milk of suckling calves increases their daily weight gain and feed intake. They also reduced the E.coli and pathogenic bacteria counts in of calves gastrointestinal tract. There was a significant difference in blood neutrophil and lymphocyte levels of calves fed milk containing additives in comparison with the control calves. Although, there was no a significant difference for the monocytes level between all groups of calves.

Heat stress is one of the environmental stressors that has significant effects on the dairy cattle industry. Environmentally induced hyperthermia or heat stress (HS) during dry period has subsequent negative effects on performance of dairy cows .In utero hyperthermia can have a lasting imprint on offspring growth, behavior, and metabolism and also impairs the future HS response in a mammalian modelThe biological mechanisms by which the thermal stress effects on the livestock production performance can be somewhat explained by reduced feed intake, but it is more relevant to hormonal changes, reduced rumination and absorption of nutrients, as well as increased maintenance requirements, which reduces the amount of nutrients / energy for production purpose. The objective of this study was to identify the direct and indirect effects of acute HS during the last gestation on nutrient digestibility and rumination behavior of dairy cows.

Holstein dairy cows (n= 10/treatment) with similar parity and body weight (BW), were randomly assigned to one of the three following treatments during 45 d before calving: 1) Cooling and ad libitum feed intake (TN), 2) Cooling and pair-feeding (CLPF), and 3) HS and ad libitum feed intake (HS). Cows in all groups received individually the same diet. During the experiment, daily temperature and the relative humidity were recorded. During the 26-21 d and 10 to 5 d before calving, the feed intake behavior was record for 24 hours. Cows were housed in individual free stall barn, bedded with straw, which for CLPF and CL cows consisting of shade, sprinklers, and fans that were turned on from 0700 to 1900 h, whereas HS cows were provided only with shade. During the experiment, all cows had free access to clean drinking water. Fans were installed in waiting areas, and sprinklers were applied behind the feed bunk. Diameter of fans was 76 cm, and jet 0.47 cm3 air per fan.Nutrients digestibility in feed and fecal samples was measured on 26 - 21 d and 10 - 5 before calving.

Heat stressed and feed restricted cows had lower feed intake. Heat stressed and food restricted cows had lower eating time significantly compare to the control group. Heat stressed cows had the lowest rumination activity. Also, the heat stressed cows had significantly lower resting time than the control group. Also, heat stress significantly reduced the dry matter and NDF digestibility.

Late gestation heat stress caused decreased feed intake. Also, nutrient digestibility of the diet negatively affected by heat stress. However, feed restriction in late gestation did not have significant effect on nutrient digestibility than the control group. In addition, heat stress reduced the rumination activity and resting time of the cows.

 According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Iran is the largest pistachio (Pistachio vera) producer in the world. Nevertheless, pistachio byproducts (PBs) contain a high level of phenolic compounds and tannins, which can affect their utilization by animals. Tannins (hydrolysable and condensed tannin) are polyphenolic polymers of relatively high molecular weight with the capacity to form complexes mainly with proteins due to the presence of a large number of phenolic hydroxyl groups. They are considered as anti-nutritional compounds due to their adverse effects on intake and animal performance. However, tannins have been recognized to modulate rumen fermentation favourably such as reducing protein degradation in the rumen, prevention of bloat, inhibition of methanogenesis and increasing conjugated linoleic acid concentrations in ruminant-derived foods. The inclusion of tannins in diets has been shown to improve body weight and wool growth, milk yields and reproductive performance. Pistachio byproducts (PBs) contain a high level of phenolic compounds and tannins, which can affect their utilization by animals.The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of PBs extract on nutrients apparent digestibility, nitrogen balance and ruminal fermentation characteristics in ruminants.

PBs were completely dried under sun and were ground to pass a 1 mm sieve by cyclic mill. PBs were soaked in water at 1 to 5 ratio in ambient temperature for 12 h  and then were smoothed with the 4 layer cotton cloth. The extract was concentrated in an oven at a temperature below 40◦C. Four mature Baluchi male sheep (36.82 kg body weight, standard deviation 1) were fitted with ruminal cannula and were placed in individual metabolic cages with free access to fresh drinking water. The basal diet comprised 0.415 kg/d alfalfa, 0,165 kg/d barley straw and 0.250 kg/d concentrate feed (as-DM basis) that met their energy and crude protein (CP) requirements for maintenance according to the NRC (2007), and was offered in one meals. The concentrated PBs extract was infused in rumen at the levels that were administered to supply 0 (CON 1), 2, 4, or 6 % total tannin in the daily DM intake. All animals simultaneously received the same PBs extract dosage. Every period comprised 14 d of adaptation and 7 d of total urine and feces collection. Subsequent to highest PBs extract dosage, infusion was ceased and after 14 d of adaptation, urine and feces were collected again for 7 d (CON 2). Also in the end of every period rumen sampling was taken and animals were weighted.

 Feed intake of animals were not affected by ruminal infusion of the different levels of PBs extract due to the restricted feeding level, but duration of feed intake was significantly increase when the concentration of PBs extract was increased. It seems, the intraruminal PBs extract application might not have interfered with diet palatability. The ruminal PBs extract infusion had no significant effect on body weight gain, DM and CP apparent digestibility but OM, NDF and ADF apparent digestibility were significantly reduced. Besides, the pronounced ability of tannins to form complexes with feed proteins; they may impair microbial degradation of other polymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and starch. The increasing of PBs extract concentration significantly increased rumen pH and acetate/propionate ratio and decreased rumen ammonia nitrogen, propionate, valerate and isovalerate. Lower ruminal ammonia nitrogen concentration may have resulted from a greater concentration of tannins that bound to proteins and decreased proteolysis resulting in a reduction of ammonia nitrogen release in rumen. Depression in VFA concentrations might be related to lower microbial activity of rumen in the presence of tannins. Iso-acids are derived from amino acids catabolism by cellulolytic bacteria in the rumen, that reductions their concentrations can indicate the protection of protein from bacterial deamination. Higher ruminal pH may have resulted from lower ammonia nitrogen and VFA concentrations in the rumen. The urine nitrogen excretion was reduced by increasing of PBs extract concentration, while the feces nitrogen excretion and retained nitrogen were increased. Infusion of incremental PBs extract dosages greatly shifted partitioning in nitrogen from urine to feces and could contribute to lower ammonia emissions from manure in ruminant production. The decrease in urinary nitrogen excretion can be attributed to the protein-binding property of PBs extract and the consequently lower ruminal protein degradation and ammonia nitrogen release. Besides of the tannin level, the effects of tannins differ greatly by the type and source of tannin as well as the composition of the animals’ diet.

 Generally results of this experiment indicated that while the ruminal PBs extract infusion at the level that was administered to supply 4 % total tannin in the daily DM intake preserved CP apparent digestibility, it improved nitrogen balance and rumen fermentation characteristic of sheep.

Dietary fat has been shown to improve reproductive performance and lactation. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of adding cotton and canola to Kurdish ewes' diet on the ability to digest the nutrients, some metabolites and blood hormones were carried out after birth.

The design was carried out in a completely random design. Treatments included 1) diet without oilseed 2) diet containing 6% cotton dry matter 3) diet containing 6% cotton dry matter 4) diet containing 3% f cotton and 3% cotton dry matter. Feed digestibility was calculated according to the method of Wankulen and Young (1977). Blood samples were taken at 5, 3 and 1 weeks after calving to assess blood metabolites and hormones. rumen fluid was obtained by oral sucker.

The results showed that the effect of treatments on ruminal pH was significant at 5% level, with the highest pH related to canola seed treatment (6.60). Blood glucose levels were significantly increased in all treatments (1, 3 and 5 weeks) in treatments containing oilseed (P <0.01). The highest amount of glucose was related to canola seed treatment in the 5 week of calving (90.90 mg / dl). Blood cholesterol levels in all three treatments were significantly increased in treatments containing oilseed, and the highest cholesterol level was observed in the cotton and canola (85 mg/dl) treatment one week after calving (P <0.01). Insulin levels were significantly increased in canola treatment at week 3 and 5 (P <0.01). Among the digestibility factors, dry matter increased in treatments containing oilseed, and the highest dry matter was in cotton and canola (54.42) (P <0.05). NDF was significantly decreased in treatments containing oilseed and the lowest NDF was in canola seed treatment (45.52) (P <0.05).

The overall results of this study showed that the use of oilseeds improved digestibility and it has had a positive effect on blood cells. Therefore, it is recommended to use a diet containing 3% dry matter cotton and 3% canola dry matter in postpartum period.

The overall results of this study showed that the use of oilseeds improved digestibility and it has had a positive effect on blood cells. Therefore, it is recommended to use a diet containing 3% dry matter cotton and 3% canola dry matter in postpartum period.

The overall results of this study showed that the use of oilseeds improved digestibility and it has had a positive effect on blood cells. Therefore, it is recommended to use a diet containing 3% dry matter cotton and 3% canola dry matter in postpartum period

Background and objective: 

Increasing of livestock population has resulted in shortage of feed sources and competition between humans and animals. These problems have led to increasing concern in using by-products in animal feeding. But, most by-products have a low nutritional value due to the presence of high concentrations of lignocellulosic compounds and intermediate metabolites. In such a situation, a good solution is to use different processing methods to increase the nutritional value of these compounds or to use commercial enzyme mixture in animal fed. The aim of this study was to determine chemical composition of some agricultural by-product and also to the test the effect of a commercial enzyme mixture on their in vitro fermentation characteristic using gas production technique.

Material and methods: 

Soybean hull was provided from a soybean processing factory and pistachio hull and sugar beet pulp were provided from a local farm. In the laboratory soybean hull divided in to batch and one of them was under wind blowing separate soybean hull from cracked bean to produce bean-free soy hull. All samples were analyzed in duplicate for kjeldahl nitrogen, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber. Gas production test was performed and metabolisable energy, digestible organic matter and volatile fatty acids were estimated. About 200 mg of each were incubated in 100 ml glass syringes and 30 ml of incubation liquid were added and were incubated in 39 C° water bath. The amount of enzyme was 0.05 %. The gas production was measured in 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120h. The results were analyzed in completely randomized design.

Results: 

Greatest content of crude protein and lignin were measured in soybean hull (20.49 % of Dry Matter) and pistachio hull (8.55 % of Dry matter), respectively. High amount of non-fiber carbohydrate were noted in pistachio hull and sugar beet pulp. Enzyme had no effect on gas production in different hours, cumulative gas production, and the rate of gas production, organic matter digestibility, metabolisable energy and volatile fatty acids.

Conclusion: 

Pistachio hull and sugar beet pulp had a large amount of non-fibrous carbohydrates and both soybean hull and sugar beet pulp had a small amount of lignin. Appling enzyme in the recommended dose did not have any effect on the fermentation parameters, digestible organic matter, metabolisable energy and chort chain fatty acids. For future studies, using higher doses of the enzyme mixture and different times of enzyme application be suggested. Key words: By products, exogenous Enzyme, Gas production, Volatile fatty acid.

Effect of processed Lathyrus sativus by mesh or extrude on performance, nutrients digestibility, rumen and blood parameters and body measurements in Holstein dairy calves

Lathyrus sativus as a source of protein have been used in ruminants’ diet and because of similar amino acids profile to soybean meal can use instead of soybean meal in ruminants’ diets (25). Heat processing increased extent of amino acids pass into the intestine in dairy cattle fed by heat processed Lathyrus sativus (18). There is limitation information about effect of Lathyrus sativus in dairy calf performance. Furthermore, the goal of this study is evaluating effect of processed Lathyrus sativus by mesh or extrude on performance, nutrients digestibility, rumen and blood parameters and body measurements in Holstein dairy calves.

Eighteen Holstein female dairy calves with an average birth weight of 40 ± 3 kg were allocated randomly in complete randomized design. The experimental treatments consisted of: 1) control diet without Lathyrus sativus, 2) diet containing powder Lathyrus sativus, and 3) diet containing extruded Lathyrus sativus. The calves were fed colostrum for 3 first days after berthing and followed by equal of 10 % of their body weight milk up to 80 days. Sampling of feed, residual feed, feces, rumen fluid, blood and measuring of body weight and other measurements were done in particular times. Data were analyzed using GLM procedure of SAS using a completely randomized design with 6 replications.

Starter intake in the calves fed by extruded Lathyrus sativus than those of fed mesh Lathyrus sativus and control group was significantly increased (P= 0.043), but Starter intake in the calves fed by mesh Lathyrus sativus than control group was numerically higher (P>0.05). Average daily gain, final body weight and feed efficiency were not affected by experimental treatments (P>0.05). Digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, natural detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber and ether extract were not statistically affected among treatment (P>0.05). PH value was not affected by experimental treatments (P>0.05), but rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration using extruded Lathyrus sativus than mesh form or control group was significantly decreased (P= 0.049). There were not any different (P>0.05) in blood glucose, triglyceride, total protein and cholesterol in claves during the experiment. Also, body measurements include body length, hip height, hip width, heart girth, body barrel and withers height in the middle and end of the experiment were not affected significantly (P>0.05).

Using of Lathyrus sativus grain may replace soybean meal in starter diets until 80 days of age without harming growth performance. Extruding of Lathyrus sativus grain than mesh form leads to improve of feed intake and average daily gain at the end of experiment. It seems with reducing of ammonia nitrogen in the rumen and blood, extruding of Lathyrus sativus grain can pass the protein into the intestine and improve nitrogen utilization efficiency.

In livestock rearing, providing a balanced diet for animal in order to produce meat and milk is the main component of this profession. Due to the limited rainfall and lack of good forage resources in Iran, nutrition has the highest cost share in livestock production. Therefore, identifying local source of animal feed and determining their nutritional value is essential. Because using these local feed sources in addition to reducing feed costs, prevents the depletion of these natural resources and increases employment. Reed fodder is one of the available forage species in many parts of the world, including Iran, and has a good potential for using in livestock feeds. This plant grows abundantly in wetlands and on the banks of most rivers in the country. Despite the severe shortage of livestock feed in Iran, the reed fodder is not used properly in livestock feeds. The crude protein, crude fiber and calcium amounts of reed fodder are 11.4%, 31% and 0.17 %, respectively. A cow weighing 300 kg needs 6 %digestible protein for 500 g daily gain, which reed fodder can supply half of the digestible protein and all the calcium and phosphate. The expansion of the livestock feed industry made it perfect feed for the various stages of growth of the most types of livestock. Complete feed block (CFB) is composed of forage, concentrate, and other supplementary nutrients in a desired proportion, which is capable to fulfill nutrient requirements of animals. The feeding of CFB stabilizes rumen fermentation, minimizes fermentation loss, and ensures better ammonia utilization. Advantages of CFB are using local feed raw materials which are cheaper and easier in distribution, because the distance between the processing place and the farm is closer. Also, it has a competitive advantage compared with commercial feed manufactured in large industrial scale; because, it is more efficient in production, it is lower in transportation costs and easier in storage, and it can reduce operating costs, especially labor. The type of feed will prevent selective feeding of animals;then, nutrients are provided more evenly by rumen microorganisms. There are few studies on the use of reed fodder in complete feed block form. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of diet containing reed fodder (Phragmatis australis) in the form of complete feed block on growth performance of Baluchi lambs.

Thirty male lambs with an average age of 5 to 6 months and weight of 28±2.9 kg were fed with complete diets based on 30% forage and 70% concentrate. The experimental diets were: 1) total mixed ration containing alfalfa hay and wheat straw as the control, 2) complete feed block containing reed fodder as block diet, and 3) total mixed ration containing reed fodder as mixed diet. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three treatments and 10 replications. Animals were fed the experimental diets for 105 days, and daily feed intake were recorded. A digestion trail for seven days were conducted at the middle of experimental feeding, and daily feed intake and feces excretion were recorded. At the end of experiment, rumen fluid samples were taken from each animal at 3 h after morning feeding. Concentration of NH3-N was determined for rumen fluid samples according to Broderich and Kang (1980), and VFA were analyzed according to Ervin et al. (1961). Rumen fluid was used to direct count of protozoa using the methods of Dehority (2003). The chewing activities were recorded through a visual observation method for a period of 24 h continuously (08:00 to 08:00 the next day) at 5 – min intervals. Blood samples from jugular vein were collected in serum tubes containing anticoagulant agent approximately 4 h after morning feeding.

Feed intake (g/day), weight gain (g/day), and final weight (kg) of lambs fed with control and block diets were higher than those fed with mixed diets (P˂0.05). Apparent digestibility of DM, NDF, ADF, and CP in lambs fed with control and block diets were higher (P˂0.05), but no significant difference was observed between lambs fed with control and block diets. In lambs receiving the mixed diet, the NH3-N concentration was lower and the ratio of acetate to propionate was higher (P˂0.05), but no significant difference was observed between lambs receiving the control and block diets. The pH of rumen fluid as well as concentrations of isovaleric acid and valeric acid were not affected by experimental treatments. The whole rumen protozoa population and the population of Entodiniums and Epidiniums were higher in lambs fed with block diet (P˂0.05), but no significant difference was observed between lambs fed with the control and mixed diets. The concentration of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) was lower in lambs fed with the control and block diets (P˂0.05), but no significant difference was observed between lambs fed with the control and block diets. Other blood metabolites were not affected by experimental diets. The physical form of the feed (block diet) significantly increased the eating rate, ruminating rate, and total activity of the chewing (P˂0.05). Compared to lambs fed with block and mixed diets, lambs fed with control diet spent more time for eating, ruminating, and chewing. Feed conversion ratio of lambs fed with diets containing reed fodder was not affected by the physical form of the feed. Probably the decrease in air temperature during the fattening period affected the feed conversion ratio, and it was more effective for lambs fed with mixed diet with rough feed. The cost of feed per kilogram of live weight gain during the fattening period for each of the control, block, and mixed diets was calculated as 76630, 66360 and 67270 Rials, respectively. Based on these results, the use of reed fodder in the form of cubic blocks was more economical than the other two treatments.

The results of this experiment support the positive effects of using diets containing reed fodder in the form of complete feed block with the lower costs in areas which have the potential for growth of reed fodder.