قدرت الله صباحی

The tomato fruitworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) is a highly versatile pest found worldwide. Due to its high mobility, short growth period, and high reproduction rate, it has become a highly damaging agricultural pest in various regions. One effective and long-lasting strategy for managing pests, like the tomato fruitworm, is to utilize a combination of chemical insecticides and other control methods in an integrated pest management program. Insecticides have direct effects on mortality rates and indirect effects by altering the physiological or behavioral characteristics of the target pest. In a sustainable agriculture strategy, it is crucial to assess the direct and indirect effects of insecticides on the biological parameters of the target pest. This study aimed to investigate the lethal and sublethal concentrations of thiodicarb, pyridalyl, and chromafenozide on the life table parameters of the tomato fruitworm.

The bioassay of insecticides on the second instar larvae of the tomato fruitworm was conducted by adding the insecticides to the artificial diet. In control, distilled water was used instead. To study the sublethal effects of thiodicarb, pyridalyl, and chromafenozide insecticides, 200 tomato fruitworm larvae of second-instar were selected from the laboratory population from a growth chamber and then transferred to containers. After three days, 70 alive larvae were randomly selected and transferred to individual rearing containers containing an insecticide-free diet in each treatment. All demographic parameters were measured individually in each treatment. The data related to the mortality of the tomato fruitworm larvae was analyzed by the probit method in a bioassay. For each insecticide, the dose response line and the LC50 slope were estimated at a 95% confidence level. One-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the sublethal effects of the tested insecticides on the duration of immature stages and the developmental rate. A comparison of means was done with Tukey's test at a 5% probability level. The sublethal effects of the insecticides on the demographic parameters of pests were analyzed using the age-stage-specific bisexual life table theory.

According to the bioassay tests on the tomato fruitworm larvae, the estimated LC50 values for thiodicarb, pyridalyl, and chromafenozide, were 209.62, 48.09, and 2.74 mg a. i. /L, respectively. The results of the sublethal effects showed that LC30 values of insecticides could alter the pest's biological and life table parameters. The lowest length of embryonic, larval, pre-pupal, pupal, immature, pre-, and post-oviposition periods was recorded in the control treatment. On the other hand, the longest time of these parameters was observed in the chromafenozide and pyridalyl treatments. The highest lifespan of males and females and the maximum fertility of pests were observed in control. However, the lowest of these parameters were observed in the chromafenozide and pyridalyl treatments. None of the insecticides had a significant effect on the sex ratio of the tomato fruitworm (1:1). The highest value of net fecundity rate (R0), intrinsic rate of increase (r), finite rate of increase (λ) were observed in the control treatment and the lowest values of these parameters were observed in the chromafenozide and pyridalyl treatments. The lowest average value of total generation period (T) and doubling time (DT) was observed in the control treatment, and the highest value of these parameters was observed in the chromafenozide and pyridalyl treatments.

After conducting tests to evaluate the lethal and sublethal effects of insecticides on the biological parameters of tomato fruitworms, it was found that pyridalyl and chromafenozide had shown more effects than that of thiodicarb. It can be concluded that pyridalyl and chromafenozide insecticides are more effective on the tomato fruitworms than thiodicarb. Therefore, it is recommended to use pyridalyl or chromafenozide insecticides along with the other control methods in an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach for the tomato fruitworms.

In this study, the efficacy of pyridalyl and chromafenozide insecticides and the parasitoid Habrobracon hebetor alone and in combination with insecticides against the tomato fruitworm Helicoverpa armigera in tomato farms in Fars Province were investigated. Chromafenozide + parasitoid and pyridalyl + parasitoid treatments controlled the pest population better when compared to the application of each insecticide or parasitoid alone, which indicates the increasing effect of insecticide and parasitoid when used together. The highest healthy green fruit yield was observed in pyridalyl treatment, the highest healthy red fruit yield, and the highest total yield was observed in chromafenozide + parasitoid and pyridalyl + parasitoid treatments and the lowest was observed in the control. Also, the lowest amount of damaged green fruit, red damaged fruit, and red rotten tomato was observed in chromafenozide + parasitoid and pyridalyl + parasitoid treatments. The highest amount of damage was observed in the control treatment. In addition, the highest increase in total yield was observed in the treatments of chromafenozide + parasitoid and pyridalyl + parasitoid treatments, and the lowest was observed in the parasitoid alone treatment. The integrated treatments had the highest efficiency, the least damaged fruit, the highest yield, and the highest increase in yield. This study showed that pyridalyl and chromafenozide insecticides in combination with H. hebetor are a suitable method for controlling H. armigera in tomato fields.

Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is one of the most important pests of cucumber and its resistance to insecticides has caused many problems in controlling measures. Collecting fundamental data by using bioassay and biochemical tests is essential for pest resistance management. In this study, the susceptibility of the pest to the insecticides; spirotetramat and flonicamid was investigated for two populations collected from Karaj (Alborz Province) and Birjand (South Khorasan Province), Iran. Bioassay tests were conducted by leaf disk immersion method. Mortality was recorded after 72 hours. The data analysis was performed by Polo-Plus software. Results showed that in Karaj and Birjand populations, the LC50 values for spirotetramat were 52.81 and 33.35 mg. a.i /L, respectively, and for flonicamid were 6.78 and 3.7 mg. a.i/L, respectively. The LC50 Ratio values for spirotetramat and flonicamid were 1.633 and 1.829 for those populations, respectively which were significantly different. Also results of biochemical tests showed higher resistance in Karaj population. Different enzymes involved in resistance include carboxyl esterase (evaluated by α-naphthyl acetate and ß-naphthyl acetate substrate), glutathione S-transferase and monooxygenase. The activity ratios of above-mentioned enzymes in Karaj population were 1.39، 1.29، 1.51 and 1.06 times higher than those in Birjand population, respectively. The enzymatic results were parallel with the results obtained from the bioassay tests. Therefore, it seems that all three enzymatic systems are involved in detoxifying of the tested compounds.

Habrobracon hebetor Say, is one of the most important larval parasitoids of many lepidopteran pests, particularly the family Noctuidae. In this study, the lethal and sub-lethal effects of chromafenozide, pyridalyl and thiodicarb, as insecticides, were investigated on this parasitoid under laboratory conditions. Bioassay tests on adults were conducted based on contact method and sub-lethal effects were done based on demographic toxicology. According to bioassay tests, estimated LC30 values for chromafenozide and thiodicarb were 126.43 and 54.24 mg a.i./L, respectively. Since even with the application of three times more than that of the field concentration of pyridalyl (2250 mg a.i./L), maximum mortality percentage of insects was 19%; LC30 value was not estimated for this insecticide. In order to assess sub-lethal effects of insecticides, female wasps were exposed LC30 values of chromafenozide and thiodicard and the field concentration of pyridalyl (750 mg a.i./L). According to sub-lethal tests, insecticide treatments significantly affected duration of life different, fecundity and life table parameters. The intrinsic (r) and finite (λ) rates of increase were significantly lower in insecticide treatments than that of control. Overall, results showed that thiodicarb had the highest toxicity effect on H. hebetor, while pyridalyl and chromafenozide had less adverse effects on this parasitoid. Following field experiments and subject to confirmation of the results of this study, it is possible to use pyridalil and chromafenozide in integrated pest management programs.

In this study, the immature stages of T. brassicae (Hym.: Trichogrammatidae) were exposed to the recommended field concentration and half of the recommended field concentration of four insecticides abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamipride, and flubendiamide.  The dipping method was carried out for the treatment of immature stages. The percentage decrease in emergence, rate of parasitism, longevity and sex ratio were determined. The results show that these concentrations of abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamipride and flubendiamide, especially the recommended field concentrations, affected the biological parameters of the wasp compared with the control. In the flubendiamide treatment with the recommended field concentration the percentage emergence of F0 and F1 larval, prepupal and pupal stages were (69.58±1.07, 81.67±2.15 and 78.75±2.20) (70.33±2.78, 80.25±3.57 and 88.45±3.60) and were classified in class 1 respectively and abamectin with percentage emergence of F0 and F1 (44.58±1.34, 49.58±1.19 and 40.00±3.02) (44.72±1.97, 42.35±7.28 and 48.76±2.87) were classified in class 2 in all the stages. Emamectin benzoate and acetamipride were also classified in some stages as class 1 and in the other stages as class 2. Furthermore, the most and the least side effects of other parameters of the pesticides were related to abamectin and flubendiamide, respectively. The results reveal that flubendiamide could be recommended for the control of butterfly pests in IPM programs due to lower toxicity to natural enemies.

Due to the fact that Tuta absoluta is one of the most important pests of tomato and causes damage, therefore to use less risk insecticides for the environment, consumers and natural enemies, in the study, the effects of, abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamiprid, and flubendiamide were tested against T. brassicae and T. evanescens of natural enemies of T. absoluta in laboratory conditions of Arak Agricultural Research Center in 2018. Parasitoids were reared on the angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) eggs in the laboratory under the controlled conditions of 25 ± 1 °C, 60 ± 10% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:8 h (L: D). The comparison test of the parasitism of the two species was performed by t-test and in 10 categories in a plastic glass. LC25 of pesticides in tests were used. The experiments on LC25 effect of each pesticide on wasps survival were performed by vial assay and completely randomized design in 5 replications and in each replications 10 female wasps. Wasps were exposed to this concentration for 24 hours. Control treatment was distilled water. In order to investigate parasitism rate of lived wasps, experiments were conducted in 3 replications in each replications were 5 wasps that for 48 hours were placed exposed to150 eggs of Tuta absoluta in cylindrical containers. Completely randomized design to factoriel method was conducted. The mortality rate was recorded daily and the rate of parasitism reduction was calculated. Corrected mortality rate for abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamiprid and flubendiamide with host of T. absoluta were 26.67, 20, 13.33 and 13.33% for T. brassicae, respectively, and for T. evanescens 20, 20, 13.33 and 6.67 percent. The rate of reduction of parasitism in the treatment of abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamiprid and flubendiamide for T. brassicae were 25.12, 18.71, 13.3 and 11.81% respectively, and for T. evanescens were 24.18, 19.2, 15 and 10.84% respectively. Based on our results, flubendiamide showed selectivity and it can be used as an effective tool for integrated pest management programs of tomato leaf miner.

The effects of the recommended dose (RD) and half of recommended dose (HRD) of four insecticides, abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamiprid and flubendiamide, were studied on different immature stages of Trichogramma evanescens, egg parasitoids of tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Parasitized eggs of the Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cereallela (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), were treated by the dipping method at the larval, prepupal, or pupal stages of the parasitoid. Cards containing 140 parasitized eggs of Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) were dipped into RD and HRD solutions of the insecticides for 10 seconds at each developmental stage of the parasitoid. Bioassay was performed only for immature stages of F0 generation. Reduction in emergence rate, parasitism rate and longevity of F0 generation as well as reduction in emergence rate and sex ratio of F1 generation were determined. Acetamiprid and flubendiamide were harmless at pupal stage, abamectin, emamectin benzoate and acetamiprid were slightly harmful but flubendiamide was harmless in regards of the emergence rate of the generation F1. Flubendiamide was the only insecticide with no significant difference on sex ratio compared to control. Both concentrations of abamectin and emamectin benzoate were slightly harmful and flubendiamide was harmless in terms of the rate of emergence and parasitism at the generation F0 in all developmental stages. In general, abamactin and flubendiamide in both generations were in slightly harmful and harmless groups, respectively.

Tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lep.: Gelechiidae), is one of the most important pests of tomato in the world. In the current study, effects of four insecticides, abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamiprid, and flubendiamide were tested against 1st larval instar and pupae of the tomato leaf miner. Also, their lethal effects were studied on the adult stage of two species of egg parasitoids, i.e., Trichogramma brassicae and T. evanescens. The leaf miner collected from greenhouses near Arak (Markazi province, Iran) were reared for three generations under laboratory conditions and then treated by the leaf-dip method at larval or pupal stages. The parasitoids were tested by coated vial residue method. Insect mortality was recorded 24 h after initial exposure. The LC50 values of abamectin, emamectin benzoate, acetamiprid, and flubendiamide were 0.92, 0.13, 1.51, and 0.34 µg/ml, respectively for the 1st larval instar and 4.99, 2.25, 3.22, and 3.48 µg/ml, respectively for the pupae. Similarly, the LC50 values of the above-mentioned compounds were 0.0013, 0.0029, 0.0058, and 1.53 µg/ml, respectively for T. brassicae and 0.0014, 0.0025, 0.0052, and 1.71 µg/ml, respectively for T. evanescens. The maximum number of parasitized eggs was seen on the 2nd day after the emergence of both parasitoids. These amounts forT. brassicae after treatment by LC25 of flubendiamide, acetamiprid, emamectin, and abamectin, were 14.70 ± 0.17, 14.00 ± 0.20, 13.1 ± 0.20, and 11.8 ± 0.14, respectively which statistically differed with the control (16.00 ± 0.12). For T. evanescens, the related values were 13.10 ± 0.21, 12.37 ± 0.12, 11.50 ± 0.18, and 11.23 ± 0.16, respectively which differed meaningfully from the control (14.00 ± 0.19). Risk quotient categorized flubendiamide in class 2 (slightly harmful) and other compounds in class 3 (harmful). Based on our results, flubendiamide showed selectivity and it can be used as an effective tool for integrated pest management programs of tomato leaf miner.

During the last decade, plant and microbial-derived metabolites have received growing attention as potential tools for pest management in agriculture. Pederin (C25H45NO9) is a vesicant toxin produced by Pseudomonas-like bacterial symbionts of rove beetles within the genus Paederus (Col: Staphylinidae). In this study, the toxicity of pederin to two stored product pests, Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lep: Pyralidae) and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Col: Tenebrionidae) was evaluated using laboratory bioassays. Probit analysis estimated the median lethal concentrations of pederin as 1311.96 and 596.36ppm for E. kuehniella fourth larval instar and T. confusum adults, respectively. We also measured the activity of two major digestive enzymes (amylases and proteases) as well as three major detoxifying enzymes (P450s monooxygenases, glutathione S-transferases, and carboxyl esterases) in insects treated orally with pederin. Feeding on pederin resulted in significant decrease in the activity of amylolytic, proteolytic, and carboxyl esterase enzymes, but significant increase in the activity of P450s and glutathione S-transferases. Results of this study may highlight pederin as a novel source of pesticides with unique mode of action for use in pest management programs.

The effects of four insecticides, abamectin (1500 and 750mgl-1), emamectin benzoate (1000 and 500mgl-1), acetamiprid (500 and 250mgl-1), and flubendiamide (500 and 250mgl-1), were studied on different preimaginal stages of T. brassicae and T. evanescens, the egg  parasitoids of tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Parasitized eggs of the Angoumois grain moth Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) were treated by the dipping method at the larval, prepupal, and pupal stages of the parasitoid. For persistence
evaluation, the insecticides were applied at the recommended concentration on tomato plants by a hand sprayer till runoff point. Plants were maintained under a transparent polyethylene rain cover in the field. Leaves of the treated tomato plants were sampled and transferred to the laboratory at time intervals of 3, 5, 16, and 31 days after application. Based on our study, abamectin was the most harmful insecticide for immature stages of both parasitoids T. brassicae and T. evanescence. Treatment by abamectin at the pupal stage had more adverse effects
compared to prepupal or larval stages. Acetamiprid with 30.5% and 31.6% mortality in less than five days was classified as the short-lived insecticide for T. brassicae and T. evanescens, respectively. The same result was obtained in flubendiamide treatment which caused 27.2% and 26.1% mortality to the parasitoids, respectively. Abamectin with 16.1% and 13.8% mortality in less than 16 days was slightly persistent. However, emamectin benzoate with 13.3% and 15.5% mortality in less than 30 days was classified as moderately persistent for those two species, respectively. Therefore, flubendiamide and acetamiprid were non-harmful to both T. brassicae and T. evanescence wasps and are good candidates to be incorporated into IPM programs in combination with biological agents for the control of tomato leaf miner T. absoluta. By contrast, emamectin and abamectin should be used with greater care as a part of an IPM procedure.

Increasing agricultural waste especially pesticides in runoff, water surface and subsurface as well as environmental risks posed by these contaminants has led to its removal from industrial effluents, urban and rural waste water are particular importance. Occurrence of pesticides in wastewater and environmental hazards resulting from its, has created deep concerns about the public health. Paraquat is the most widely used herbicides in Iran and the world. Due to human activities, constant amount of this herbicide is being increasing in the water. Parkinson's disease is the major effect of this pollutant. In recent years, the use of advanced oxidation processes on the basis of strong oxidizing species has received much attention In order to completely remove the dangerous and complex compounds. Among the advanced oxidation methods, Photocatalytic processes have high efficiency in the degradation of various organic materials to biodegradable matter, carbon dioxide and water. In this study, first, the process of photocatalytic has been reviewed. Then, the degradation of paraquat under the visible light in the presence of La,S-TiO2 synthesized Nanophotocatalyst were done. Moreover, for the first time, the effect of operating parameters, including the catalyst dose, H2O2 amount and volume of contamination on the photocatalytic removal efficiency were investigated and evaluated. The results show that the use of H2O2 of 2mL, catalytic dose of 100 mg and volume of contamination of 50 mL, 71.8 % of the Paraquat “Gramoxone” was removed over four hours under visible light irradiation. Furthermore, the results show that the modified synthesized photocatalysis (La,S-TiO2) has much higher photocatalytic activity than undoped TiO2 for the degradation of paraquat at the optimum point.

Lysiphlebus fabarum (Marshall) is an important endoparasitoid of the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli. In this study, sublethal effects of the field recommended concentration of deltamethrin (0.5 ml a.i./l) were evaluated on the parasitoid in a growth chamber at 21±1°C, 60 ± 5% RH and a 16:8 h (L: D) photoperiod. One-day-old mummies were exposed to the insecticide via dipping method. Distilled water was used in the control treatment. The demographic parameters of emerged adults from treated mummies were studied. The results showed that the field recommended concentration of deltamethrin negatively affected biological and the stable population parameters, e.g., number of eggs laid (mummified aphids), emergence rate of adults and longevity, the intrinsic rate of increase (r) and finite rate of increase (λ) and the mean generation time (T). Overall, the results of this study indicated that deltamethrin caused deleterious effects on the parasitoid and semi-field and field tests seem to be necessary.

Lysiphlebus fabarum Marshall,an endoparasitoid of the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli is an important component of integrated pest management of this pest and it is necessary to study its interaction with insecticides used against this pest. In this study, the lethal effects of recommended concentrations of three insecticides, thiacloprid痩浪枭蚸, pirimicarb and pymetrozine were investigated on pupal and adult stages of the parasitoidunder laboratory conditions. The pupae and the adults were exposed to insecticides with mummy dipping and dry residues of insecticides on glass plates methods, respectively. Thiacloprid痩浪枭蚸 and pirimicarb significantly caused mortality rates in pupal and the adult stages, while pymetrozine had no significant effect. According to International organization for biological control (IOBC)(toxicity of insecticides), thiacloprid痩浪枭蚸 at the pupal and the adult stages were classified as moderately harmful (class 3) and harmful (class 4), respectively. Pirimicarb was also classified as slightly harmful (class 2) and harmless (class 1), respectively. Pymetrozine in the two tested stages were classified as harmless (class 1). In this study, the persistent toxicity of insecticides against the adult wasps was also investigated under semifield conditions. According to the IOBC (persistence) classification, thiacloprid痩浪枭蚸, pirimicarb and pymetrozine were classified as moderately persistent (class C), slightly persistent (class B) and short lived (class A), respectively. According to the present study, pymetrozine and pirimicarb had low side effects on L. fabarum at the pupal and adult stages, but thiacloprid痩浪枭蚸 caused deleterious effects on this parasitoid at two stages tested.

Tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lep.: Gelechiidae) is one of the most important pest of tomato around the world which have been introduced to Iran in recent years. Pesticides can usually reduce the damage caused by the pest, however the extensive use of pesticides substantially increase production costs and lead to development of insecticide resistance. Thus, pest resistance and also adverse effects of pesticides on the human health and the environment make search for alternative control method/s inevitable. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of proteinaceous extracts of Datura (Datura stramonium L.), Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), Wild Oat (Avena fatua L.), Broad bean (Vicia faba L.), Amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), Mung bean (Vigna radiate L.), Pea (Pisum sativum L.), Canola (Brassica napus L.), Triticale (Triticosecale wittmack) and Sivand, Aflak and Alborz wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars seeds on protease activity of tomato leaf miner. Also in this study optimum pH for protease activity and effects of pH on inhibitory activity of extracts were determined.
For this work fourth instar larvae of Tuta absoluta was used for enzyme extraction. Plant proteinaceous extracts were obtained using 0.1 M NaCl. For protease activity assay 10 μl enzyme extract and 50 μl substrate solution (Azocasein 2%) were mixed with 40 μl of the 20 mM Glycine-NaOH buffer at pH 10.0 After 60 min incubation, 100 μl of 30% trichloroacetic acid (TCA) was added to the reaction mixture, and kept at 4 °C for 30 min, followed by centrifugation at 15,000gfor 15 min to precipitate non-hydrolysis substrate. 100 μl of 1 M NaOH was added to 100μl supernatant and the absorbance at 405 nm was measured. To determine the effect of the seed proteinaceous extracts on the protease activities, enzymes were pre-incubated with each seed extracts for 30 min at 35 °C followed by determination of the residual enzyme activity as described before. To determine the effect of pH on inhibitory activity of the seed extracts, highest concentration of Mung bean, Pea, Canola, Broad bean, wild oat and two wheat cultivars (Alborz and Aflak) seed proteinaceous extracts were incubated along with the enzyme for 30 min at pH set at 6-12, and then enzyme activity was recorded as described before. Protein concentration was measured using bovine serum albumin (Bio-Rad, München, Germany) as a standard.
The effect of pH on protease activity showed that the greatest activity was observed at pH 10 and in the other pHs, it was lower, that this result Corresponded with the pH in other lepidopteran larvae. Also greatest activity of protease at alkaline pH indicates high activity of serine proteases in the alimentary canal. The greatest activity of protease was observed at 40 °C that wasn’t significant compared to 35°C. Effects of all seed proteinaceous extracts on protease activity were concentration dependent, so that the results showed that at the highest concentration, extracts of datura, bean, wild oat, broad bean, amaranth, mung bean, pea, canola, triticale and Sivand, Aflak and Alborz wheat cultivars inhibited the enzyme activity of the larvae with the percentage of 26, 25, 24, 40, 37, 33, 57, 53, 44, 43, 50 and 51, and the lowest concentration of seed extracts inhibited enzyme activity with the percentage of 11, 4, 6, 15, 8, 8, 16, 22, 11, 9, 13 and 16, respectively. Also the greatest inhibition of mung bean, pea, canola, broad bean, wild oat, Alborz and Aflak seed extracts were observed at alkaline pH which is the optimum pH for the activity of this enzyme in the in vitro condition. Due to the alkaline pH of lepidopteran larval gut lumen and maximum activity of protease, which occurs at the alkaline pH, it can be expected that in the in vivo condition, the extracts are impressed protease activity. However, complementary studies will be needed to achieve that.
Our results showed that the proteinaceous seed extracts have biological activity against the tomato leaf miner and therefore it may contribute towards the development of new insect pest control strategies. Thus, further study of these inhibitors including their purification, characterization and structure elucidation as well as the feasibility of their expression in transgenic host plants will unveil more detailed feature of the inhibitor.

Behavioral changes of biocontrol agents after exposing to pesticides have an important role in success of IPM programs. In the current study lethal and sublethal effects of abamectin, acetamiprid and indoxacarb as the widely used insecticides were investigated on adults of mirid bug, Nesidiocoris tenuis and its behavior on Tuta absoluta eggs. Experiments were performed in the laboratory conditions (25±1ºC, 60±10% R.H. and 16:8 (L:D) photoperiod). Effects of sublethal concentration of insecticides were evaluated during 24 h period using dried residues of insecticides on tomato leaf. The values of LC50 for abamectin, acetamiprid and indoxacarb against N. tenuis were 33.40, 36.55 and 204.43 and of LC30 were 20.42, 30.38 and 181.53 µl a.i./L, respectively. All insecticides decreased attack rate of the predator; however, the most effective one was indoxacarb. On the other hand, indoxacrab and acetamiprid caused significact increase in handling time of predator while the most effective was indoxacarb. Abamectin showed the lower behavioral effects among the tested insecticides. According to total effect index (E) in IOBC category, acetamiprid (85%) and indoxacarb (77%) were harmful against N. tenuis predatory bug, while, abamectin (38%) was considered as slightly harmful.

Recently, the use of plant essential oil as natural compound for protecting crops and decreasing environmental pollutions has been considered. In this study, contact and fumigant toxicity of peel essential oil of Citrus sinensis singly and in combination with spirodiclofen and propergite were evaluated against adult females of two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae. Median lethal concentration (LC50) values of essential oil of orange peel in the contact and fumigant toxicity assay, were 11.48 μg/cm2 and 48/75 μl/l air, respectively. Contact toxicity of C. sinensis essential oil in comparison with the two chemical compounds showed that T. urticae was more sensitive to spirodiclofen (LC50= 2.76 μg/cm2) than the essential oil, while propargite was less efficient (LC50= 28.51 μg/cm2). Furthermore, mixture of propargite and essential oil of orange peel (both at LC25) showed a mortality less than the total expected mortality (50 %). In contrast, mortality of LC25 of spirodiclofen mixed with C. sinensis essential oil was much higher than that of the total expected mortality (96.66 %). According to co-toxicity coefficient (CTC) factor, mixtures of C. sinensis essential oil with propargite and spirodiclofen, exhibited antagonistic and synergistic effects, respectively.

Khapra beetle Trogodermagranarium (Evert.) (Coleoptera: Dermestidae), has been considered as one of the most invasive pest for stored products in the world. The insect has become tolerant to conventional pesticides including fumigant such as phosphine and methyl bromide. Application of plant essential oils can be a suitable alternative for fumigation. In this study, fumigant and persistence toxicity of the essential oils from leaves of Mentha pulegium L., Eucalyptus microtheca F. Muell and walnut hulls Juglans regia L. evaluated against T. granarium under laboratory conditions of 30±2ºC, 65±5% R.H and darkness. Adult stage have high sensitivity to essential oils. In a period of 48 h exposure, LC50 value against adult stage of T. granarium were 6028.66, 6383.48 and 5498.20 ppm for eucalyptus, walnut and pennyroyal essential oils, respectively. LC50 values indicated that essential oil of pennyroyal (confidence limit: 4646.17-6482.07) had the most insecticidal activity against T. granarium. There was significant differences among LC50 values at p<0.5. The persistence assay against adult stage of insect showed the LT50 value was 8.69, 9.71 and 8.54 d for eucalyptus, pennyroyal and walnut, respectively. Therefore, the persistence of pennyroyal (8.44-11.10) essential oil was the most among the tested plants.

The population fluctuations of the Asian citrus psyllid nymphs, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, was studied in Persian lime orchards on the outskirts of Sarbaz, Rask and Polan towns in southeastern Iranian Baluchestan between 2007 and 2008. The species D. citri was observed feeding on its host plant throughout the year leading to overlapping generations. The highest density (126 ± 11 and 157.63 ± 68) occurred in Sarbaz in August and March. We reported the highest density for Rask and Polan in “September and March” and November respectively.

To study the effects of intercropping on performance and quality of alfalfa and sainfoin, a field experiment as split plot in time arrangements in randomized complete block design with three replications was carried out at Research Farm of College of Agriculture, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran in 2008-2009 and 2009-2010. Experimental treatments included: Monoculture of alfalfa, monoculture of sainfoin, 50% alfalfa+ 50% sainfoin as one alternate, 50% alfalfa+ 50% sainfoin as two alternates, 75% alfalfa+ 25% sainfoin, 25% alfalfa+ 75% sainfoin, 10% sainfoin+ 100% alfalfa,, 20% sainfoin+ 100% alfalfa, 30% sainfoin+ 100% alfalfa. Results showed that the effect of year and intercropping treatments on forage dry yield was significant. The highest dry yield (5011 kg.ha-1) was obtainedin 30% sainfoin+ 100% alfalfa and the lowest dry yield 3989 kg.ha-1) obtained in monoculture of sainfoin. The effect of intercropping on CP, DMD, ADF, ASH and CF was significant. Also, the effect of year on ADF and interaction effect of year × intercropping on DMD was significant. The highest CP (24%), ADF (29%), Ash (7.3%) and CF (32.2%) were obtained from monoculture of alfalfa, but the highest DMD (90%) was related to monoculture of sainfoin. In both years, the highest LER (1.26 and 1.28 for first and second years, respectively) were related to 30% sainfoin+ 100% alfalfa. Therefore, 30% sainfoin+ 100% alfalfa was identified as the best treatment of this experiment.

Environmental friendly pesticides with a natural origin can be used as an alternative to chemicals in plant pests control programs. From this perspective, the extract of Ginkgo biloba L. plant is important. In this study which was conducted in 2010, the ethereal extract of exocarp and kernel of G. biloba seed was analyzed using a Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectroscope. The components included ginkgolide A, B and C, bilobalide, catechin, compferol, bilobtine, quercetin and isoginkgotine. Ginkgolide A, with an abundance of 28.7 and 18.7 percent in the kernel and exocarp, respectively, was the prevalent metabolitye among the components. Catechin was only observed in the exocarp extract while quercetin was only found in the kernel extract. The repellent effects of extracts on Tetranychus urticae Koch was tested using a Y-tube olfactometer, which is an enclosed bioassay to resolve responses to test and control volatiles. Both extracts showed significant repellency for the pest, and there were no statistical differences between the extracts. The significance of this similarity is the possible utilization of waste products from drug facilities to produce compounds with repellent effects.

Animals that can estimate their desirable habitat quality are better able to accordingly adapt their life behaviors. The life cycles of parasitoids are so closely adapted as to match their hosts life behavior. Among the various host-parasitoid interactions, a peculiarity is the seasonal synchrony between host and parasitoid activity. The foraging and oviposition behaviors of Lysiphlebus fabarum as influenced by (1) a female’s previous experience of encountering different day length conditions in larval and in adult stages and (2) the time of day are investingated in this study. In order to test, L. fabarum females were individually released onto bean leaf disks infested with A. fabae and while continuous observations being made, the females’ proportional time allocations were assessed. Furthermore, numbers of aphid defensive behaviors including kicking, raising and swiveling of the body, releasing the plant and escape from attack and well as attempts to smear the attacker with cornicle secretions were recorded. Wasps that experienced only short day conditions spent more time in arenas than wasps that experienced other conditions, obtaining higher scores for the incidence and duration of all behaviors associated with parasitism. Furthermore, the females of this treatment parasitized more aphids than the two treatments the larvae of which were developed under long day conditions. Because of the high effect of treatment on patch residence time, the incidence or duration of various behaviors was expressed as a fraction of patch residence time and then re-analyzed. Data showed that the incidence and duration of all the behaviors were higher for females the larvae of which developed only under longlasting days. In the second experiment, foraging females behaved no differently in patch residence times, incidence or duration of various behaviors, and the number of aphids parasitized within the patch, either in the morning or in the afternoon

Toxicity and oviposition deterrent activities of ethereal extracts of exocarp and kernel of Ginkgo biloba seed were evaluated on various life stages of two spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae. Petroleum ether was used for extraction. Bioassay was conducted using three replicates for testing five concentrations 35، 45، 60، 75 and 100 g/l of pure extracts. LC50 was measured by Pri-Probit software. Effect of extracts on various life stages of mite was measured using randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. The result indicated that extract of the exocarp and the kernel lead to mortality in various stages of mite. The Most sensitive stage was nymphal stage. Lowest LC50 value (39. 82 mg/ml) and highest one (48. 27 mg/ml) related to the exocarp and the kernel extracts، respectively. However، there was no statistical difference between effects related to extract of exocarp and kernel. These extracts reduced the oviposition to 3. 5 and 4. 1 eggs/day as well as the oviposition period which diminished to 8. 9 and 8. 1 days، which in comparison to control (9 eggs/day، 16 days) this reduction equivalent to 60% and 50%، respectively. Since exocarp is removed during drug production from ginkgo seed، this production waste can be used as a source for pesticide compounds production.

Carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae) is considered as the most important pest of pomegranate in Iran causing serious damages up to 80% at pre and post harvesting stages. In this study larval parasitoids of carob moth were collected from three regions of production sites of pomegrante namely: Varamin, Qom, and Saveh during 2007. Eight species were collected from Varamin, 7 species from Qom and 4 collected from Saveh. The braconid, Apanteles myeloenta Wilkinson was the most prevalent species among the collected parasitoids which could be found in all the sites of study. The emergence peak of parasitoids occurred at the end of the cropping season (September). Parasitism started in Varamin from Aug., being continued until Oct. It prevailed from July until Oct in Qom and from Aug. until Oct. in Saveh. The highest diversity of parasitoids and the most parasitism percentage level was observed in Varamin. The highest percentage of fruits attacked by E. ceratoniae was found in the near harvest, period, starting in Oct. The percentage of infested fruits in the agricultural season was approximately 69.25% in Varamin, 47% in Qom and 56.25% in Saveh during October. This is the first report of parasitism of carob moth larvae by all species belonging to Ichneumonidae, Chelenus sp. (Hym.: Braconiade) and Fischeria bicolor (Dip.: Tachinidae) in the world. According to the obtained results, diversity of parasitoids and parasitism percentage of carob moth larvae is so considerable that many further studies on their control, and the conservating methods of the valuable natural treasures that can fall prey to them should be conducted.

In the course of study on larval parasitoids of carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae), an hyperparasitoid wasp, Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae Rondani, was collected from pupae of Apanteles sp. (Hym.: Braconidae). The latter species is the larval parasitoid of the carob moth. The P. vindemmiae belongs to the family Pteromalidae and is a new record for Iran insect fauna.

Fumigant toxicity of various doses of essential oils (185.2, 370.4, 555.5, 740.7, 925.4, 1111.1, and 1296.3 µl/l water) from five officinal plants, including rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), lavender (Lavandula vera), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)and summer savory (Satureja hortensis)on two stored products pests, cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) and red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) have been studied. The cowpea weevil was more susceptible than red flower beetle for all essential oils have been tested. The essential oil of rosemary showed the most fumigant toxicity among the tested plants so that mortality of cowpea weevil in treatment with the least dose of related essential oil reached 100% after 12 h. The mortality of red flower beetle was 5% at the same time; however, after 24 h it reached 30%. The essential oil of tarragon that showed the least fumigant toxicity caused 100% mortality in cowpea weevil after 18 h and 95% mortality in red flower beetle after 24 h. The mortality of cowpea weevil in treatments with high doses of essential oils from lavender, fennel and summer savory after 5, 18 and 18 h reached 100%, respectively. This time was 24 h for the red flower beetle, treated with mentioned treatments. The LT50 calculated for cowpea weevil and red flower beetle in treatment with lavender essential oil were 24.96 and 4.78, that of rosemary 30.14 and 11.73, of fennel 15.64 and 8.71, of tarragon 11.74 and 6.10 and essential oil of summer savor were 12.28 and 3.60 h, respectively.