فهرست مطالب مرجان مشکور

Ziwiye, as one of the key sites for Iran’s North West Iron Age (Median kingdom), has many masterpieces kept in different museums and a long list of publications. The main part of this list consists of monographs that are written based on one or more limited objects from an out of context collection. There are few articles that comprehensively include the findings “attributed Ziwiye” and “came from excavation”. However, many articles have been published about Zavieh’s findings, but parts of this collection still remain unknown and do not receive enough attention. The corpus of bone arrowheads is one of them, some of which were found during archaeological excavations while others came to museums from antiquities dealers. These include: the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, Musée du Louvre in Paris, the National Museum of Iran in Tehran, and the Sanandaj Archaeological Museum. This article aims to introduce and categorize 51 bone arrowheads. Some of these were registered as ivories, but our research concluded that all of these were made of bone. In few instances, the production manner prevented the proper identification of bone versus ivory. Another examined point in this research is whether such arrowheads were produced for actual warfare or for prestige and symbolic use in ceremonial events considering their bone material. The examined samples from other sites show that bone can be hard enough to penetrate game and human body even with light protection such as archery. Bone for making arrowheads was used for hunting big games and some tribes still use them.

Despite the extensive excavations and research in the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent, questions remain regarding the Neolithization process and the role of the Zagros region in these dynamics. Tappeh Qazānchi, is located at 1323 m.a.s.l. to the northwest of the city of Kermanshah and lies close to the Razavar river, was selected for archaeological research due to the presence of a long chronological sequence. The project aimed to study the Early Neolithic societies’ material culture, residential practices, subsistence economy and the environmental conditions of the site. mechanized agricultural practices over the past five decades have damaged the site, revealing a section (approximately one hundred meters long on the northern part of the mound) of cultural sequences from the early Holocene period. The site was sounded during the winter of 2019 to identify the cultural sequences, determine the core area and buffer zone. The extent of the core area was estimated to be approximately two hectares. The stratigraphy was carried out in the section of the northern wall in three trenches. The results indicate that the lower levels contain a Pre-Pottery Neolithic sequence and the upper levels of the site belong to the Late Chalcolithic and Middle Bronze Age periods. Archaeological, and high-resolution bio- and geoarchaeological investigations (archaeobotany, archaeozoology, micromorphology, and sedimentology) reveal that the Holocene environment around the site was characterized by small-scale permanently waterlogged areas or periodically flooded zones. During the Middle Bronze Age, Tappeh Qazānchi is contemporaneous with Chogha Maran (upper phase) and Godin Tepe (Period III), and during the Late Chalcolithic with Siahbid (middle and late phases), Chogha Maran and Godin Tepe (Period IX). The Pre-Pottery Neolithic phases at Qazānchi were contemporaneous with several other early Holocene settlements of the Zagros, including Sheikh-e Abad, East Chia Sabz, Kelek Asad Morad, and Chogha Golan.

The Old city of Esfarayen is located in the north east of Iran and the south west of the modern city of Esfarayen. In the Qajar period, this city was cited as the "city of Belghays". According to archaeological evidence and written sources, Esfarayen was influenced by economic and culture of Nishapur and deemed as one of the major centres for the production of domestic herbivores (sheep, goat and cattle) that provided Nishapur with animal products. This paper attempts to gain a better understanding of subsistence economy of Esfarayen by evaluating the faunal remains of this city and studying written sources focusing on the Islamic period. The paper also aims to identify the exploited animals in Esfarayen and the role of livestock and stockbreeding in such aspects of the local society as diet, farming, trade, and transportation. As regards few Archaeozoological astudies have been done on animal remains, especially, in Islamic period.Due to the importance of agriculture and animal husbandry in Esfarayen, the faunal remains of two seasons of excavation (1389/2010-1391/2012)were studied in the Archaeometery Laboratory of the University of Tehran. The assemblage belonged to the first centuries of the Islamic period (S1), Samanid-Qaznavid (DJ121,DK121), Seljukid-Ilkhanid (BW-BX116), and Timurid period (H1-H5). Nearly 1005 pieces of animal bones were found in these excavations, and this article presents the results of archaeozoological studies on the collection. The bulk of the animal bones was recovered in the S1 trench. The vast majority of the animal remains, in all periods, belonged to caprines (sheep/goat) followed by the cattle. The other identified animals in Shahr e Belqeys were identified, such as horse, donkey and dromedary. Wild taxa including gazelle, red deer and carnivores. The presence of various traces related to human modification (cut marks and burning) shows that all these animals had a role in different areas of the economy of this town.

Abstract The Greater Khorasan including the area covering the modern Khorasan province in Iran has played an important role in the historical and cultural development of the Islamic world. Nishapūr, as one the major cultural and economic centers of Khorasan exists in a cultural landscape in which urban and rural entities constitute an inextricable part of it. Agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry have been continually the foundation of Nishapur’s economy. kohandež (Citadel) as stated by written sources was the oldest part of the old Nishapur and acted as the governmental center and later as one of city quarter. One of the first faunal remains of kohandež was discovered during excavations of joint Irano- French expedition in 2004 and 2005. Nearly 2470 pieces of animal bones were found in these excavations, and this article presents the results of archaeozoological studies on the collection. The main volume of the remains can be dated to the early Islamic period up to the 7th H./13th CE, and a small portion, based on the results of absolute dating, belongs to the Sassanid as well as the late Parthian period. This paper is also attempts to gain a better understanding of subsistence economy of Nishapur by evaluating the faunal remains of kohandež and studying written sources focusing on the early Islamic period to the Mongol invasion. The paper also aims to identify the exploited animals in Old City of Nishapūr by attempting a reconstruction of animal based human diet and the role of livestock and stockbreeding in such aspects of the local society as diet, farming, trade, and transportation. The results indicate that sheep and goat were were in the most exploited animals not only for meat but also for providing by products such as milk and in particular wool a particularly precious material for the textile industry.

Tepe Qela Gap (also known as Ghala Gap ) in Azna: Lurestan, was excavated in 2009 aiming to establish the chronological sequence for the Azna Plain located eastern of Central Zagros, which had been scarcely  studied archaeologically until now. Considering the ecological diversity surrounding the plain, Tepe Qela Gap seems to have been an ideal place for the settlement of permanent villages but could also be suitable for nomadic and semi-nomadic people. The archaeozoological study of a large faunal assemblage, approximately 6500 items from this site, has provided evidence on the evolution of the subsistence economy of the site during various periods of occupation. The faunal spectra of Qela Gap from different periods, indicates that domesticated sheep/goat and cattle were the major source of animal resources. Among these domesticates it should be noted that cattle ratios are important and together with evidences of kill off patterns and osteological pathologies, we can hypothesise that these animals were used not only for food but also as draught animals, most probably, used for agricultural activities. This is a feature especially visible during the Bronze Age. The wild species, although not abundant (6%), were also part of the subsistence economy. Remains of wild sheep (Ovis orientalis), red deer (Cervus elaphus) or persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica), boar (Sus scrofa) and gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) have been found and indicate that different ecosystems were exploited. Another important feature of the Qela Gap fauna is the discovery of a horse (Equus caballus) bone within the Neolithic Levels. In parallel to the archaeozoological analysis, the archaeobotanical studies are on-going and will provide a more complete picture of the subsistence economy of the site during the 5000 years of occupation.

Research on the chronology of Fars began with Louis Vanden Berghe’s work in the early 1950s. As archaeological work progressed, several gaps appeared in the cultural development of this region. One of the gaps in the chronology is the transition between the Taimurān A phase and the Achaemenid period, spanning approximately 300 years from 900 to 600 BCE. Any effort to document this chronological gap is important because it coincides with the arrival of early Persian communities in Fars. It has been hypothesised that these early Persian communities were nomads and thus finding their settlements is not an easy task. However, recent excavations at the archaeological site of Qasrdasht, near Pasargadae in Kamin Plain, recovered six meters of archaeological deposits in two excavated areas, including a large corpus of pottery and well-defined architecture. This is a clear evidence for a settled community predating the emergence of the Achaemenid dynasty in Fars. In this paper, we present twenty-three absolute dates, including five radiocarbon dates obtained from animal bone and charcoal samples and sixteen thermoluminescence dates obtained from diagnostic pottery sherds. The results are then critically discussed. The radiocarbon dates from bone and charcoal show discrepancies with the expected cultural period as a result of contamination of the earliest material in the excavated area. On the other hand, absolute dates obtained through thermoluminescence from some of the pottery sherds, with diagnostic typological criteria, contribute to filling the archaeological gap between the Taimurān A phase and the Achaemenid period.

Botkhaneh Cave located at 21 km southwest of Kuhdasht, is one of the archaeological sites which has probably been occupied by mobile pastoralists which through the time the cave was deeply looted. During a rescue archaeological operation the material culture was collected by the last author and his team. The results of the pottery analysis and the occupation pattern in the adjacent sites represent the continuity of a temporary occupation in the cave. In this paper, we assess the characteristics of this site through an archaeozoological study of the animal remains. The faunal assemblage of this site is composed of domestic and wild. Caprines (sheep and goat) followed by bovines and equids are the most represented taxa while a considerable amount of donkey remains could be identified. We also developed analysis for the kill-off patterns for Caprines and some other taphonomic variations. These observations help to better understand the faunal accumulation in the Botkhaneh Cave in relation to the other archaeological materials.

First season of archaeological excavation at the pre- and proto-historic site of Tepe Chalow in Northern Khorasan Province, NE Iran, was carried out by a joint Irano-Italian expedition in the autumn of 2011. The joint team opened 9 trenches in the core zone plus 28 small test pits in the periphery of the site to evaluate the accumulation and extent of archaeological layers. Archaeological analysis of the material and data gathered through excavation show influence of different cultural areas including Damghan (Hissar I-II) and Gorgan plains (Shah Tepe III-II) to the south and north of Alborz Mountain, respectively, as well as piedmont zone of the northern Kopet Dagh in southern Turkmenistan (Namazga III, VI). One of the most important results of the first campaign was the discovery of a large mid-late Bronze Age necropolis with the material culture of Namazga VI, the so called‘ Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex’ (BMAC). A total of 6 graves with BMAC materials were excavated in the first season which yielded not only the luxury objects but also the ordinary, household objects and the pottery identical to the contemporary assemblages from Bactria and Margiana. The bio-archaeological studies conducted during the first season of excavation at Chalow show that agriculture and herding were important components of the economic activities of the site all through the occupational sequence.

Northwestern Iran is one of the key regions in the archaeological researches and the field of interest for many scholars, especially during the Iron Age and Proto-Historic period. The Iron Age, which covers the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, is a highly scrutinized period in terms of the evolution of cultures in the archaeology of Iran. The cultural, economy, and social developments during this age underlined the emergence of the Mannaean (Iron Age II) and Median (Iron Age III) governments, which consequently gave rise to the Achaemenid Empire in Iran. Iranian and Foreign archaeological studies who focused on this period paid attention to various subjects, such as cultural continuity or change from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, the typology of material culture, settlement patterns, and the debate regarding the Indo-Iranian migration. Tepe Hasanlou is an important ancient site due to its long sequence occupation and extensive excavations, which relatively complete studies, have been conducted in its cultural materials, including architecture, metal objects, pottery, burials, seals, ornaments, and human skeletons. The subsistence economy of the site has not been studied purposefully and comprehensively. In this regard, this paper dealing with the subsistence patterns and the way of human interactions with environment, through the bioarchaeological researches at Tepe Hasnalou specifically and northwestern Iran generally. We used the results of biological anthropology, archaeobotany, and archaeozoology obtaining the given goals. The paper is attempting to synthesis the results of mentioned multidisciplinary studies with archaeological evidences and historical records in order to re-identifying the agricultural and animal husbandry systems. The acquaintance of modern agricultural and animal husbandry activities in northwestern Iran is another possibility, which is very important for the interpretation of ancient subsistence economy. Hence, the geographical landscape, the location of pastures, products of agricultural activities and livestock, and pastoral-nomadism strategies in the region to foraging the herds are introduced in the paper. Fortunately, substantial, large, and well-preserved animal remains from Tepe Hasanlu were kept and curated at the National Museum of Iran. This collection belongs to the last seasons of excavation in 1970, 1972 and 1974, which was not studied before. The floral remains and human skeletons have a better situation considering with conducted studies by physical anthropologists and archaeobotanists. These studies published in the different journals or reports of excavations could give us the general view and awareness about agricultural activities, dietary and nutrition of residence of Tepe Hasanlou, especially during the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age. Other evaluated evidence includes the ancient records of Neo-Assyrian Empire which are mentioned to the governments of the northwestern Iran during the 1st millennium B.C. These records indicated that, Tepe Hasanlou was a province of the Mannaean State with some cultural and political communications with northern Mesopotamia. On the basis of Assyrian records, sheep, cattle, horse, and two-humped camel were the dominant animals of the region. In the 1st millennium B.C., the ancient northwestern powers of Iran used these livestock as tribute to the New Assyrian Empire. In this regard, the current study attempts to compare this historical evidence with the results of bioarchaeological studies. The results indicate the existence of developed agricultural and animal husbandry systems at Tepe Hasanlu during the late 2nd and throughout the 1st millennia B.C. All such evidence supports the existence of a sedentary society that relied on animal husbandry and farming. The results of bioarchaeological, paleoclimatological, and palynological researches demonstrate the presence of socio-economical system of nomadic pastoralism and transhumance during the Iron Age, which probably was in communications with sedentary city societies such as Tepe Hasanlou.

Northwestern Iran is one of the key regions in the archaeological researches, especially during the Iron Age. Tepe Hasanlu is an important ancient site due to its long-term occupation and extensive excavations, with relatively complete studies. This paper dealing with the results of recent archaeozoological researches of Hasanlu, to complete the lack of studies on the subsistence economy of the site. The studied faunal remains of Hasanlu derived from campaigns of 1970, 1972 and 1974, which are housed in the Osteology Department of the National Museum of Iran. This paper intends to examine the subsistence economy and animal exploitation patterns during the Iron Age in Tepe Hasanlu. The faunal remains of Middle and Late Bronze Age and Historic period also evaluated to better perception of changes and evolutions in subsistence strategies of Iron Age. The results of studies pointed to the developed animal husbandry during all periods of Hasanlu, which domesticated sheep and goats, and cattle were the most important exploited resources. Equids also allocated the considerable portion of the collection which especially bred in Iron Age. The same pattern identified in contemporaneous sites such as Haftavan Tepe and Dinkhah Tepe in northwestern Iran.

Here we present the results of 2005 field research in the Qaleh Bozi site complex located at south-southwest of Isfahan، close to the inner foothills of the Zagros range، on the south-western margin of the Central Iran. The sites include two rockshelters and a cave located at elevations of between 1750 and 1810 meters above sea level، on the southern face of a limestone cliff of lower Cretaceous age. These sites were studied by M. Yazdi، who excavated one of the sites، Qaleh Bozi 1، in 2004. In 2005، under the supervision of F. Biglari، a joint team conducted test excavations at the other two sites، Qaleh Bozi 2 and، Qaleh Bozi 3. A large sample of animal bones and lithics were recovered from these sites، the largest assemblages belonging to QB2 with abundant، well-preserved macro and micro-vertebrates remains and lithic artifacts. A large sample of faunal remains was recovered in these sites. The largest faunal assemblage belongs to Qaleh Bozi 2. A considerable number of shaft fragments of the limb bones were recovered in this cave. Some specimens show impacts and breakage patterns compatible with marrow extraction. The anthropogenic activity is also evidenced in a number of burnt and cut marked bones. The Macro mammalian remains belong in majority to large and medium sized herbivores. Besides the Caprini the gazelles are abundant in the assemblage. Among the large herbivores، the dominant species are the Equids. Aurochs was also identified with remains of horn cores and the presence of Rhinoceros is attested by few bones and teeth fragments. The lithic artifacts were made from small river worn pebbles. Chain operation took place entirely at the site as shown by the high percentages of cortical flakes، some intact and tested pebbles and cobbles and cores and small debris. Façonnage technology and core reduction are present in the industry. Both hard hammerstone and probably soft hammerstone were used. There are very few Levallois elements. Tools and flakes are predominant and making up three quarters of the assemblage. The remaining artifact types consist of cores، waste and debris. The tool group is dominated by various types of scrapers، followed by the retouched pieces، notch-denticulates، borers and bifacial tools. A number of pointed tools from Qaleh Bozi 3 were selected for use-wear analysis and some use-wear traces were found on two points. These tools show edge damage، polish and scarring which indicate they were used for butchery، most probably for cutting meat. This preliminary analysis shows that a use-wear analysis of a larger sample may yield useful additional insights into the subsistence activities of human groups on the Iranian Plateau in the Middle Paleolithic. The analysis of a number of charcoal fragments from Middle Paleolithic layers at Qaleh Bozi 2 has allowed the identification of two different taxa including Willow or Poplar and Pistachio. This analysis shows the presence around the site of two different plant formations: open steppe-forests and riverine formations. AMS radiocarbon dates from charcoal samples collected during the 2005 excavations at Qaleh Bozi 2 refine the dating for the Middle Paleolithic occupation of this site to Late Middle Paleolithic (OIS 3). The diversity and the significant number of large species such as equids، Rhino and Aurochs، the relative absence of carnivores، the presence of thick ash lenses، and the presence of almost the entire chain operation in Qaleh Bozi 2، indicate a possible base camp function for QB 2، probably for a number of months on a yearly basis، during the Middle Paleolithic. But the evidence from Qaleh Bozi 3 indicates short-term stays probably related to hunting activities at the Qaleh Bozi Mountain and Zayandeh Rud plain. This is indicated by the dominance of bifacial and uinfacial points in the tool-kit and also the abundance of caprids and gazelles in identifiable faunal remains.

Determining and studying collected lithic assemblages، biota remains and deposited beds (regarding to sedimentology) of two rock shelters in the age of Late Pleistocene to recent interval in central Iran were the aims of this research. Mobarekeh (Qaleh Bozi) and Yekeh Chah (near Golpayegan) are two sites in which remains of consumed and hunted biota by human were checked by this research. Lithic assemblages are studied considering their sources. Mousterian lithic assemblages from Qaleh Bozi caves and rock shelters (Hassan Abad Caves) are made of silica pebbles (limestone with Nummulite or cherty beds in the age of Paleocene to Eocene time interval) that hominids had collected from the Zayandeh Rud River in the Middle Paleolithic Period. Finally it should be stated that lithic artifacts in Yekeh Chah are mostly Quartzite sandy shale (probably belong to Jurassic). Black beds (charcoal lenses) in Qaleh Bozi and Yekeh Chah caves were sampled and washed for Determining biota remains and sedimentary components. All washed samples from two localities had remains of: burned wood (charcoal)، large vertebrate mammals (mostly horse)، vertebrate and micro vertebrates (fish، rodent، reptile and amphibian)، egg of birds، seeds and grass. SEM photos related to hunted and consumed birds’ beak and nails from Mobarekeh and Yekeh Chah confirmed that the food of man in those localities could be similar. This research is first report the presence of hunter-gatherer hominids in Central Iran (Mousterian). Lithic assemblages are collected from Separab Naein in the age of Mesolithic and from Tapeh Ashena (Chadegan) in the age of Neolithic as well.

Kani Mikaeil cave with an area of about 712 m2 is located in the northeast of Sanandaj in the Zagros region. An archaeological excavation by Palaeolithic Research Center (Roustaei et al 2002) was held in 2001 in this cave to document the prehistoric settlement of man in the region. Several test pits were dug in different parts of the cave. A great number of microvertebrate remains (Rodents, Aves, Amphibien, Reptiles) were found after the systematic dry sieving of the sediments from each section which were found to be originally pellet accumulations. The cave might have been occupied during the last 20,000 years from the late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene. In order to document the environmental changes during this time period the rodent remain from these sections are studied currently at the rodent department of the Science Faculty of the Mashad University. The rest of the material is studied at the Natural History Museum of Paris. The rodent assemblage, the most abundant part, is composed of Hamsters, Jirds, Dipodidae, Wood mouse, Voles, and Pikas. This research presents, the hamsters, for which two genera Mesocricetus and Cricetulus were identified on the basis of tooth morphology and morphometrics.