مسعود باتر

One of the most important types of pottery of the early Islamic era in Iran is the Slip-painted ‎pottery that was developed and ‎expanded in Iran in the third and fourth AH, especially in the ‎Samanid period. In this research, to understand the techniques ‎of slip coating in this pottery and ‎to identify the chemical composition of slip and the pigments used in them, some historical ‎‎samples of Slip-painted pottery ‎found from Sistan were studied in various laboratory ‎methods, including microscopic study, ‎spot ‎test, and Analysis by XRD and SEM-EDS‎ method‎‎. These laboratory ‎studies showed that clay slurry mixed with Lead ‎compounds was used in the preparation of slip, and it was used for pottery motifs and paints spectrum from red to dark ‎brown from ocher clay containing iron oxide mixed with manganese oxide and for green color, the earthy green pigment. In ‎addition, it was found that according to the analysis of the mineralogical ‎composition of the pottery bodies, they were fired ‎at a temperature of 850-900 degrees Celsius</em>.

The Sistan plain is one of the most important ancient and historical centers in the east and southeast of Iran in the pre-historic and Islamic eras and little research has been done to understand its historical and cultural background. In this research, the bodies of six shreds of Slip-painted pottery belonging to the Sistan plain have been studied and investigated to identify their structure and mineralogical composition by various laboratory methods to identify their manufacturing technique and origin. For this purpose, various laboratory methods have been used, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), thin section petrography, and ‎Scanning electron microscope‏ ‏in‏ ‏combination with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis ((SEM-EDS)‎. The structural study of the pottery body showed that all samples are similar in terms of structure and mineralogical. On the other hand, the absence of high-temperature mineralogical phases and the presence of some special phases indicated that the potters of the Islamic era used an average temperature of about 850 to 900 degrees Celsius to fire this pottery. According to the phases identified in the body of the pottery and the data obtained from the elemental analysis, it seems that red clays were used in the preparation of the clay of these pottery works, which caused the pottery to be fired. In oxidation conditions, the color of their paste becomes red. Considering the limited number of samples of this type of pottery discovered in this region and the incompatibility of the mineralogical composition and the elements that make up the body of this pottery with the structure and geological composition of the Sistan plain region, it seems that this is probably imported clay samples.

Today, accurate and scientific study of archaeological findings and historical and cultural property in many studies, especially in the field archeometry and restoration, relies on the use of experimental methods. The ability to replicate and generalize the results of applying experimental methods using laboratory methods on the statistical population makes researchers more confident by analyzing the results of objective experiments to achieve reality. However, access to scientific and standard laboratory methods is one of the most important requirements use of experimental methods that can be employed to accurately measure and evaluate the various physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of historical and cultural samples. The purpose of this study is to find a standard test that can use to measure the permeability and insulation properties of materials used in historic buildings against moisture. In this study, to achieve this goal, for the first time was used to measure the permeability and insulation of traditional and ancient Kahgel plaster against moisture in historical buildings and architectural heritage, a test to determine the Hydraulic conductivity of water with falling head. In order to measure and evaluate the efficiency of this laboratory method to investigate the insulation and permeability of historical materials, this important feature was tested in samples of Kahgel plaster improved with different additives compared to the typical Kahgel plaster samples as a control sample. Results of the study showed that using the laboratory method, reconstructed the conditions and behavior of water during adsorption and penetration into historical samples materials are largely represented and their actual performance in the face of moisture and rainfall, therefore, it is possible to measure their permeability and insulating properties against water ‎quantitatively‏ ‏in saturated conditions with this method‏.‏

Khaf Kaboudani historical complex is one of the most important monuments of the Timurid era. This complex was built during the heyday of this region, around the tomb of the famous mystic of this period, Sultan Mahmoud Kaboudani. This historical complex, of which only a ruin remains today, was once a complete complex, including a shrine, mosque and water reservoir. The interior of the buildings of this complex, as is the tradition of Timurid architecture, is decorated with various types of architectural decorations, such as wall painting, Tokhmeh daravari, Stucco decoration, Rasmibandi and Mogharnaskari. Among these architectural decorations, the one that attracts the most attention is wall painting and Tokhmeh daravari decoration that the interior of Kaboudani mosque is where the interior surfaces of the mosque are decorated with beautiful decoration with geometric motifs in orange, red, purple, blue, ocher and white. Due to the importance of this historical complex left over from the Timurid era and the lack of study on the one hand and the deteriorating condition of its decorations, on the other hand, in this research, an attempt was made to study and identify the decoration of this historic mosque and the colors used in it experimentally and with the help of laboratory methods. Laboratory study of colored Stucco of this building, with various methods of instrumental analysis, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Scanning electron microscope in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis ((SEM-EDS), showed that "Gach-e-Zendeh" has been used in the plaster decorations and a thin layer of "Gach-e-koshte" has been used under substrate wall painting. Analysis of the pigments used in the decoration of this building by instrumental methods, indicated that all the colors used were inorganic mainly and in the range of red colors from ocher, from chalk as white and in blue from natural Lapis Lazuli Used.

The Mashhad Musalla is one of the largest and most beautiful historic musallas in Iran. Mashhad Musalla has been built during the Safavid Empire, ordered by Suleiman I. Tile's inscription on the Iwan of Musalla gateway gives the date of the end of construction, in the year 1087 AH. This monument is located at the east of Mashhad. The building has a high porch and two porticoes on both sides. Musalla of Mashhad is constructed of bricks and it was previously using for prayers of the two Eids. The building has been decorated with stucco decoration, tile-working, wall painting and Muqarnas. The building is decorated with stucco decoration, tile-working, painting and Muqarnas. The glazed tile decorations of the Mashhad Musalla include glazed haft-rang and mosaic tiles. During Safavid period, all religious buildings were embellished with tiling decorations. The most prominent decorative element in Mashhad Musalla is tile-working. The tiles in the Mashhad Musalla are predominantly white, black, blue, turquoise, green, yellow and brown. The subject studied in this paper is the creating colorants elements and identification of the chemical composition of the glazed tiles in Mashhad Musalla. Scientific and analytical research was done by Scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX) and Polarized light microscopy (PLM). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were used to determine the elemental compositions of the tile glazes. According to the results obtained, tin (II) oxide together with lead glaze has yielded white color, manganese oxide had been responsible for black color, cobalt (II) together with magnesium oxide and fluorine has yielded blue color, copper oxide was responsible of the turquoise color, lead glaze with the low content of iron oxides has yielded a brown hue, yellow color is attained by lead antimonite and copper oxide together with lead glaze had been responsible for green color. The comparison of the results of the chemical analysis of the Safavid glazed tiles in historic Musalla of Mashhad and results obtained by other scholars who have worked on the identification of the elemental composition of the glaze of Safavid tiles in the other monuments of Iran, indicated that the creating colorant elements were the same, with a little difference, during the seventeenth century and over the Safavid period in Iran. Finally, thin-section analysis under a polarizing microscope was applied to study the petrographic composition on the tile samples. The results of structural study and mineralogical composition of the body mosaic tiles of Mashhad historical Musalla by petrography method showed that the presence of Muscovite, Hornblendes, Biotite, Quartz and Feldspar minerals as the main crystalline phases within the samples. Based on the applied methods, the mineralogical analysis of tile bodies has revealed some considerable results on the composition of this kind of tiles. Apart from minor differences related to the groundmass composition, all the tile bodies examined by thin-section analysis show similar microstructure characteristics and analogous petrographic compositions. On the other hand, the results of the elemental analysis of the glaze of Safavid tiles and considering little difference between chemical composition of the Safavid glazed tiles of the Mashhad historical Musalla and the elemental composition of the glaze of Safavid tiles in the other regions of Iran, it can be deduced that the raw materials used have probably been provided from the local resources.

Kahgel (Cob) is one of the oldest traditional mortars in Iran. Kahgel plaster consists of high clay content, dried mud and a portion of straw fibers to defend the mortar against shrinkage cracks. The ancient waterproof covering is very efficient at protecting the building dry during the heavy rain showers, but low durability and the need for renewal of plaster due to erosion of rainfall suggest that Kahgel plaster is weak and unstable. So, it is very essential and necessary in finding appropriate scientific methods to enhance the durability and lifespan of Kahgel plaster. Studies on the stabilization and improvement of Kahgel plaster properties indicated that using some special tectosilicatesadditives can be improved significantly the physical and mechanical properties of earth and earthen materials such as Kahgel plaster. The effect of different micronized tectosilicatesadditives used to build the different samples of Kahgel plaster on physical and mechanical properties to enhance the durability of Kahgel plaster showed that Microsilica at 6% (by weight of Khahgel), reduced hydraulic conductivity of the Kahgel plaster at 33% level and micronizedZeolite at 3% (by weight of Khahgel), is increased by 85%. In addition Microsilica and micronizedZeolite at 3% (by weight of Khahgel), increased compression strength of the Kahgel plaster at 73% and 36%, respectively. In addition micronized Kaolin and Bentonite, increased uniaxial compression strength of the Kahgel plaster at 39 % and 33 %, respectively. In addition evaluation of water erosion of the samples during rainfall by rainfall simulator showed that use of Microsilica, Feldspar, Zeolite and Kaolin 3% (by weight of Khahgel), the minimum sample’s total dry material loss of the Kahgel plaster reduced to 10/5% and the maximum decrease to 37/7% and increase durability of the Kahgel plaster against water erosion. Experimental results indicated that in addition to the type and percentage of additives, particle size plays an important role on the physical and mechanical properties of Kahgel plaster.

The use of earthen materials is common in hot and dry areas around the world, due to a cheap, abundant and easy access to materials. Today, the use of earthen materials is common in urban and rural areas in developing countries. In Iran earthen materials have partly shaped our architectural culture and identity. Kahgel is one of the oldest traditional plastering and mortars in Iran, which has been used to insulate the roof and facades of buildings from moisture and rainfall. Although the importance of processing and curing mortars and plasters is well known among architecture and building professionals and builders, no research has been conducted on the effect of processing time upon the physical quality and mechanical properties of traditional mortars, especially Kahgel. The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the importance and duration of curing process on the physical and mechanical properties of Kahgel using experimental methods.
Material and As the first step, soil samples were taken from different areas of Isfahan and then these samples were examined using different experimental methods. Then the most appropriate soil sample in terms of physical and mechanical properties was selected. Several samples of Kahgel mortars were produced using the selected soil sample and different percentages of straw fibers. For these kahgel samples the compressive strength, tensile strength, linear shrinkage and cracking were measured to determine the most appropriate combination of selected soil mixed with straw fibers. In the second phase of the study, the type of soil and straw percentage were not changed, while the processing time was considered as an independent variable. The new Kahgel samples were prepared by a variety of processing time and then their compressive strength and tensile strength were measured to examine the effect of the curing time on the mechanical properties of Kahgel.
The results indicate that the compressive strength dropped with increasing straw fiber content and increased with increasing soil content. The results of all the tests indicate that tensile strength of Kahgel increased with increasing straw fiber content up to 6 %, but the higher straw contents decreased tensile strength. The linear shrinkage of samples decreased with increasing straw fiber content. The results showed that the curing time of Kahgel affects its mechanical properties, especially compressive strength and tensile strength. Therefore, the mechanical properties of Kahgel can be improved by increasing the duration of curing time.

The effect of silicates micronized additives are: Microsilica, Feldspar, Zeolite, Bentonite and Kaolin, on the stabilization and improvement of the physical and mechanical properties of Kahgel plaster indicated that using the micronized silicates additives can be significantly improved the physical and mechanical properties of earth and earthen materials such as Khahgel. Experimental results showed that application of Kaolin 150 microns at 3% (by weight of Khahgel), reduced hydraulic conductivity of the Kahgel plaster at 65% level and Zeolite 45 microns at 3% (by weight of Khahgel), is decreased by 85%. In addition evaluation of water erosion of the samples during rainfall by rainfall simulator showed that use of Microsilica, Feldspar, Zeolite and Kaolin 3% (by weight of Khahgel), the minimum sample’s total dry material loss of the Kahgel plaster reduced to 10/5% and the maximum decrease to 37/7% and increase durability of the Kahgel plaster against water erosion. Moreover, the type and percentage of additives, particle size plays an important role on the physical and mechanical properties of Kahgel plaster, so that with decreasing the dimensions of the additive particles, its influence is improved due to the increased surface area of materials. The optimum silicates micronized additives content, highlighted in all the test results, is 3% by weight of dry mix and for higher additives contents, appeared to have almost no effects on the improvement of physical and mechanical properties of Kahgel plaster.

Kahgel is one of the oldest traditional mortars in Iran, which it’s capabilities and performance in throughout history to conserve earthen buildings, show that it can be used as a covering for conservation of earthen architectural structures, but low durability and the need for renewal the plaster due to erosion of rainfall suggest that Kahgel plaster is weak and unstable. It is very essential in finding appropriate scientific methods to enhance the durability and lifespan of Kahgel plaster. The effect of micronized Kaolin and Bentonite additives used to build the different samples of Kahgel plaster on physical and mechanical properties to enhance the durability of Kahgel plaster, showed that micronized Kaolin, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity of the Kahgel plaster at 82 % level and micronized Bentonite, is decreased by 121 %. In addition micronized Kaolin and Bentonite, increased uniaxial compression strength of the Kahgel plaster at 39 % and 33 %, respectively. Evaluation of water erosion of  the samples during rainfall by  rainfall simulator showed that use ofKaolin 3% (by weight of Khahgel), the minimum sample’s total dry material loss of the Kahgel plaster reduced to 16/7% and the maximum decrease to 31/4%  and increase durability of the Kahgel plaster against water erosion. Experimental results indicated that with decreasing the dimensions of the additive particles, its influence is improved due to the increased surface area of materials.

Kahgel is one of the oldest traditional mortars in Iran, which it’s capabilities and performance in throughout history to conserve earthen buildings, show that it can be used as a covering for conservation of earthen architectural structures, but low durability and the need for renewal the plaster due to erosion of rainfall suggest that Kahgel plaster is weak and unstable. It is very essential in finding appropriate scientific methods to enhance the durability and lifespan of Kahgel plaster. The effect of micronized Kaolin and Bentonite additives used to build the different samples of Kahgel plaster on physical and mechanical properties to enhance the durability of Kahgel plaster, showed that micronized Kaolin, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity of the Kahgel plaster at 82 % level and micronized Bentonite, is decreased by 121 %. In addition micronized Kaolin and Bentonite, increased uniaxial compression strength of the Kahgel plaster at 39 % and 33 %, respectively. Evaluation of water erosion of the samples during rainfall by rainfall simulator showed that use ofKaolin 3% (by weight of Khahgel), the minimum sample’s total dry material loss of the Kahgel plaster reduced to 16/7% and the maximum decrease to 31/4% and increase durability of the Kahgel plaster against water erosion. Experimental results indicated that with decreasing the dimensions of the additive particles, its influence is improved due to the increased surface area of materials.

The structural of fresco pigments of period parti in kuh-e khwaja of Sistan were studied by XRD and Complementary EDX analysis. This study showed that Artist pigments were mainly used are inorganic.

The structural of Haft Tapph´s cuneiform were studied by XRD and thermal methods. Complementary chemical analysis showed that cuneiform were made of marl. The studied of thermal behavior of cuneiform tablets by STA indicated very valuable treatment of cuneiform tablets by firing.