فهرست مطالب نعمت الله اعتمادی

Leaf chlorosis and early leaf loss disturb the growth of plane trees in the urban landscape of Iranian cities. The present experiment was conducted to study the effect of trunk injection using the low-pressure Fertinyect endotherapy system with iron sources and seaweed extract for reducing leaf chlorosis of plane trees compared to soil application of iron sequestrone in the randomized complete block design with 3 replications. The experimental treatments included the injection of iron amino chelate, iron gluconate, iron citrate, and iron sulfate in combination with seaweed extract compared to the soil application of iron sequestrone and the control. Chlorophyll content, leaf iron, Fv/Fm ratio, leaf relative water content, stomatal carbon dioxide, photosynthesis, transpiration rate, water use efficiency and tree visual quality were evaluated. The iron amino chelate 4% + seaweed extract 2% and iron gluconate 4% + seaweed extract 2% compared to other treatments led to the most significant increase in leaf chlorophyll, iron content, leaf relative water content, Fv/Fm ratio, tree visual quality, and the improvement of the photosynthetic parameters. In general, trunk injection with iron in combination with seaweed extract was beneficial due to the effect of iron on chlorophyll synthesis, and growth stimulation by seaweed extract.

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea (Schreb.) is a more desirable turfgrass in the transition zone due to its drought avoidance as well as tolerance to shade, salinity, and warm temperatures stresses. The present research was conducted to evaluate the different aspects of turfgrass quality in tall fescue in response to different levels of mowing height. A factorial experiment (12 genotypes × 3 mowing heights) was schemed based on a completely randomized design with three replications. After establishment, tall fescues genotypes were subjected to different heights of mowing as follows: 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 cm. The results showed that there was a significant variation in terms of the turf characteristics between the genotypes of tall fescue. Among that, 75B resulted in the best quality and performance against mowing shock. Increasing mowing height increased turf quality, turf color, and turf cover, as well as turf softness, in all the tall fescue genotypes. Regardless of the genotype, the data support the general mowing height recommendation for tall fescue of 4.0 to 6.0 cm. Overall, based on the results of this study, 75B (a native genotype) was selected as a superior genotype for its turf quality and tolerance to low moving heights, and can be used as turfgrass in landscapes.

Application of regulators in production of pot plants have been increasing due to lowering growth, improving branching and the number of flowering branches. In order to study the effect of levels and application method of trinexapac-ethyl regulator on height control and morphophysiological characteristics and flowering of Zinnia elegans, a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was performed. Zinnias seedlings were planted in polyethylene pots and subjected to trinexapac-ethyl with levels of zero, 2×10-3, 1×10-3, 0.5×10-3 and 4.5×10-4 g when the first bud emerged. Trinexapac-ethyl was applied in both foliar spray and soil application. According to the results, 1×10-3 and 2×10-3g trinexapac-ethyl caused significant reduction in plant height. As trinexapac-ethyl level increased, number of branches and flowers were increased accordingly most of which was under the latter treatment. Branch length and leaf number was not affected. The concentrations 1×10-3 and 2×10-3g increased chlorophyll and shoots sugars, but not on root. Similarly, soil application of Trinexapac-ethyl did not showed positive effects. In light of obtained results, foliar spray application of Trinexapac-ethyl may serve as a suitable way to produce dwarf and pot Zinnia elegans  ‘State fair mix’. Based on the obtained results, application of Trinexapac-ethyl as foliar application can control and reduce the height of the Zinnia elegans ‘State fair mix’.

Gamma radiation is being used to induce mutation in diverse plant species. The present study investigated the growth and physiological responses of two tall fescue genotypes, 75C (native genotype) and Pacer (foreign genotype) to gamma radiation, as well as determination of the proper dose of gamma radiation for the mutation breeding program of this species. Seeds of two genotypes of tall fescue were subjected to different doses, including 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 Gray (Gy) of gamma ray from a 60Co (Cobalt-60) source. Irradiated and non-irradiated seeds were sown in pots and grown under controlled conditions in the greenhouse. Growth and physiological aspects associated with plant tolerance to oxidative stress were examined. The results revealed that the low dose (50 Gy) of gamma radiation stimulated seedling growth of both genotypes. However, high doses (100-400 Gy) significantly reduced seedling survival and plant height, and enhanced days to seedling emergence. Further, high doses of radiation reduced activities of antioxidant enzymes (especially catalase and superoxide dismutase), and increased the contents of proline and malondialdehyde (MDA) in the seedlings of both genotype as compared with non-iradiated plants. Biplot analysis indicated that positive correlations were found between the growth and survival of plant with antioxidant enzyme activities and negative correlations were obsereved between the plant growth and proline plus MDA contents. The native genotype (75C) was more sensitive to gamma-ray than Pacer genotype. According to the probit analysis, the 50% lethal dose (LD50) for 75C and Pacer genotypes were 212 and 223 Gy of gamma radiation, respectively. Based on the results of the present study, gamma rays stress negatively affected survival, morphological traits, and antioxidant enzymes activities in tall fescue and dosages ranging from 200 to 250 Gy is recommended as the appropriate dose of irradiation for mutation breeding programs in tall fescue.

To evaluate the effect of different levels of nitrogen and phosphorous on some physiological and morphological traits of golden rod (Solidago canadensis L.) a split plot experiment carried out based on randomized complete block design with three replications in Research Farm of Shahrekord University. Nitrogen fertilizer at four levels of (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg/ha) as main factor and phosphorous fertilizer at three levels (0, 50 and 100 kg/ha) were used as subsidiary factor. Results showed that different levels of nitrogen, phosphorous and their interactions had a significant effect on growth indices such as shoot fresh and dry matter, leaf area and flower flavonoid content. Also, nitrogen and phosphorous application showed a significant effect on flowering time and flowering duration. Increasing in nitrogen and phosphorous levels, caused early flowering and increased flowering period in treatments as the best results observed in 150 kg/ha accompanied with 100 kg/ha of nitrogen. Generally, in order to obtain the maximum growth indices in same conditions, application of nitrogen in 150 kg/ha with phosphorous in 100 kg/ha can be suggested for golden rod cultivation as an ornamental and medicinal plant.

In order to study the morphology and biochemistry characteristics of endemic accessions “Hamedan”, “prickly”, “Varamin broadleaf” and “advanced prickly”, an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications in spring conditions of Isfahan, 2018, and the best accessions were examined in terms of quality, functionality and nutritional traits. The results showed that except "Hamedan" accession, all of shape and form of plant accession are suitable for mechanical harvesting. The highest yield belonged to “Varamin broadleaf” (52.6 kg/ha) and then “prickly” accessions (30.8 kg/ha), had the highest performance. The study did not show significant differences in chlorophyll, carotenoid, phenol, protein, nitrate, nitro reductase, and potassium. The “Varamin broadleaf” accession had a significant advantage in antioxidant and fiber compounds. The “advanced prickly” accession was more desirable than others in vitamins and minerals. Oxalic acid, which is considered a negative point for nutrition, was the highest in the “Hamedan” and the lowest in the “prickly” and “Varamin broadleaf” accessions. So, “Hamedan” accession was not given priority due to its lower nutritional value, biochemical and morphological traits. In general, the accessions of “Varamin broadleaf”, “advanced prickly” and “prickly” due to desirable morphological characteristics such as plant height, fresh and dry weigh, yield and biochemical componds such as antioxidant, phenolic, vitamin, fiber and mineral are recommended. According to results of qualitative and PCA analysis characteristics “Varamin broadleaf” and “advanced prickly” are generally superior to others and can be used in breeding and farming future.

Correct pruning is one of the most important factors in growing plants particularly trees and shrubs, in the landscape. The present study was conducted to assess the effects of pruning intensity and nitrogenous fertilizer on physiological and morphological characteristics and wilting percentage in rosemary plant. A factorial experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with five levels of pruning (no pruning, half of current –year branch prune, complete pruning of current-year branch, half one-year-old branch prune and complete pruning one-year old branch) and two levels of nitrogenous fertilizer (0 and 200 kg.ha-1) with three replications. For this purpose used 18-month-old rosemary cuttings grown in the greenhouse. Stem growth was measured during six months. Number of lateral branches, root and shoot fresh and dry weights, root volume and length, chlorophyll fluorescence, relative water content (RWC), ion leakage (EL) and proline were evaluated. The growth of rosemary plants was reduced with increased pruning intensity and fresh and dry weight of shoot and number of lateral shoots  were increased with useing nitrogenous fertilizer.With increased pruning intensity, RWC, ion leakage percentage and proline content were increased and chlorophyll fluorescence decreased. RWC and proline were increased with the application of nitrogenous fertilizer. The highest wilting percentage (77.77%) of plants was observed in complete pruning of one-year old branch with nitrogen fertilizer.

Drought and salinity are the most detrimental abiotic stresses for turfgrass growth across a wide range of geographic locations. Most cool season grass species are not well adapted to extended periods of drought and salinity stress. The decline in turf quality caused by drought and salinity stresses is a major concern in turfgrass cultivation and management. Therefore, developing management practices for improving drought and salinity resistance of turfgrasses has become imperative in arid and semiarid regions. Grass genotypes differ in their responses to drought and salinity stresses, which involve changes in morphological and physiological aspects. Understanding of relative involvement of each morphological and physiological characteristic in drought and salinity tolerance is important in selecting grass genotypes to facilitate breeding of drought and salinity-tolerant genotypes. The purposes of this research were to make selections of genotypes tolerant to drought and salinity stress for turfgrass management program.

To study some morphological and physiological responses of six Iranian crested wheatgrasses (Agropyron cristatum L.) under drought and salinity, an experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of College of Abureyhan, University of Tehran, Iran. Six Iranian Agropyron cristatum genotypes were collected from six locations in Iran. Agropyron cristatum genotypes were planted in polyvinyl chloride tubes and kept in the greenhouse. Pots were filled with sandy loam soil which had been sterilized in an oven at 160ºC for 6 h. Irrigation was applied as needed to prevent any visible stress during grass establishment. Grasses were watered three times weekly to maintain plants under well-watered conditions and soil moisture at field capacity. The experiment consisted of three treatments: 1) well-watered plants were irrigated three times per week with distilled water (control), 2) Drought stress was imposed by withholding irrigation for 45 days (drought stress), and 3) plants were irrigated daily with 100 mL of 9 dS.m–1 NaCl solution (salinity stress). To avoid primary salinity shock, the soil in each pot was drenched with 100 mL NaCl solution at incremental electrical conductivity (EC) by 3 dS.m–1 per day until the final EC reached 9 dS.m–1. Data were subjected to analysis based on a split-plot design with water treatments as main-plots and genotypes as sub-plots. Irrigation treatment as the main factor in three levels (control, drought, and salinity) and crested wheatgrass at six levels were considered as sub-plots. Studied characteristics such as height, turf quality, chlorophyll content, soluble carbohydrates, relative water content, electrolyte leakage, root penetration, and effective root depth were recorded. Statistical significance was tested using the analysis of variance procedure in SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Differences between the means were determined using the Fisher’s protected LSD test at the 5% probability level.

The results of this study showed that drought and salinity stress decreased the quality of crested wheatgrass masses, and reduced the level of quality varied among the masses. Throughout the experiment, ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ under drought conditions and ‘Sabzevar’, ‘Arak’ and ‘Damavand’ under salinity conditions maintained higher Turf quality compared with other genotypes. Total chlorophyll content of ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ were higher than other genotypes under drought and salinity conditions. The maintenance of higher chlorophyll content has been associated with better drought and salinity tolerance in plant. The soluble sugar content of ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ under drought conditions and ‘Sabzevar’, ‘Arak’ and ‘Damavand’ under salinity conditions were higher than other genotypes during the experiment. Soluble sugar content is an important compatible osmolyte in plants. Increased accumulation of soluble sugar content in stressed plants may be an adaptation process and resistance strategy to abiotic stresses in plants. Throughout the experiment, ‘AEKQI’, ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ genotypes under drought conditions and ‘Sabzevar’ genotypes under salinity conditions maintained higher relative water content in compared with other genotypes. Higher RWC indicates the ability of the leaf to maintain its higher water content under stress conditions with the simultaneous capability of the root system to take up adequate water. Based on morphological and physiological analysis for drought and salinity tolerance in investigated genotypes, the tolerance ranking would appear to be ‘Sabzevar’ > ‘Damavand’ > ‘Arak’ > ‘Urmia’ = Takestan > ‘Hashtgerd’ under drought stress and ‘Sabzevar’> ‘Arak’ > ‘Damavand’ > ‘Takestan’ = ‘Hashtgerd’> ‘Urmia’ under salinity stress. The results of this study showed that ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ genotypes had good tolerance to drought stress, and ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Arak’ genotypes had good tolerance to salt stress than other Iranian crested wheatgrass genotypes.

Utilizing greenhouses for growing ornamental flowers and vegetables have attracted especial attention during last decades especially in arid areas of the world. Generally, designing, building, and choosing the cover type to be grown in the greenhouse, depend mainly on several fundamental factors such as climatic conditions, plant type and financial condition of the investor. Meanwhile, climatic conditions like temperature (average monthly temperature and difference between day and night temperatures), radiation (light duration, intensity and quality) and wind (maximum/average speed and direction) have particular importance in sustainable greenhouse systems. In this article due to existence of different climatic regions in Iran, effective climatic graphs, including temperature and radiation, for several major cities were presented to be used as guideline in design and management of greenhouse and the crops to be grown according to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) method. In addition, relative humidity was added to the graphs and the wind graphs (maximum speed and average monthly speed) were plotted separately. At the end, essential recommendations for growing thermophilic vegetables for different areas of Iran were suggested.

Trees in the landscape always lost their vitality for various reasons, and decline or dieback are experiencing. One of the factors that can affect the decline of trees can be pointed to drought stress. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi (Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae inoculated, and the combination of both species) and growth promoting bacteria; Pseudomonas Flourescens on growth responses of Cupressus arizonica in experiencing stress induced by a deficit of water as a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design, with 3 replications. In this study, the Interactions between fungi, bacteria and deficit irrigation on the concentration of phosphorus and iron, ion leakage, proline content and shoot dry weigh were significant. Under deficit irrigation most of the treatments such as colonization rate (by 39%), phosphorus (by 33%), potassium (by 16%) and iron (by 25%) cocentration, relative water content (by 25%), chlorophyll content (by 76%), height (by 29%), shoot dry weight (by 41%) and the Cupressus vitality (by 35%)  decreased; on the contrary, the percentage of electrolyt leakage (by 36%) and proline content (by 122%) increased. Morever, inoculation with mycorrhizal fungus increased the concentration of phosphorus and iron, relative water content, chlorophyll content, height, shoot dry weight and However reduced ion leakage and proline content and lead to improvement of plants growth and vitality. The presence of Pseudomonas alone did not have a significant role in improving the growth of plants under water stress conditions, but its interaction with mycorrhizal fungus showed positive effects. In general the results of this experiment showed that inoculation of cupressus plant with mycorrhizal fungus with the use of P. florescent bacteria can have a positive effect on the survival of this plant under water stress conditions.

Spinach is one of the most important green leafy vegetables (Spinacia oleracea L.). The qualitative and quantitative trait of the spinach depends on the weather conditions. Screening the foreign accession compare with Iranian ones is necessary for breeding purposes. In order to study the vegetative characteristics of 44 endemic and foreign accessions, an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications and 18 observations in spring, 2018. Quantitative and qualitative parameters of spinach evaluated based on descriptors investigated by Bioversity International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. In general, the intensity of the green color in the leaf of foreign accessions was higher than of endemic spinach. In this study, the highest yield belonged to “Viroflay” (71.224 ton/ha) among foreign accessions and, “Varamin88” (52.6 ton/ha) among Iranian's accessions had the highest performance. Minimum and maximum yields from 71224 to 8870 (kg/ha) belonged to accessions “Viroflay” and “Virginia savoy blight”. “D’inverno” accession showed the longest period of spring growth (89.66 days) and among the Iranian accession, “Hamadan2” (77 days), “Varamin88” (72 days) and “Varamin Prickly” (69.66 days) showed the longest growth in Isfahan environmental conditions respectively. The highest percentage of female plants was observed in “Monatol” accession. Among the endemic accessions, “Lorestan5” showed the highest female plant percentage. The results of this study showed that Iranian's accessions such as “Kashan”, “Lorestan6” and “Varamin Advanced Prickly” are suitable for mechanical harvesting due to their plant form, leaf and petiole attitude and can be used for plant breeding purposes. According to the cluster analysis, the accessions in this study were divided into two large groups (I, II), which the “Varamin88” placed beside the foreign outstanding accession in cluster I.

Trees decline is a complex physiological disease that results from the interactions between several factors, one of which is heavy metal stress that ultimately leads to the death of trees. This experiment, which was conducted during 2016-2017 at the campus facility of the Department of Horticulture at Isfahan University of Technology, was conducted to investigate the effects of inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae inoculated, and the combination of both species) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), Pseudomonas Flourescens, on the growth responses of Arizona cypress (Cupressus arizonica G) to different concentrations of cadmium (0, 5, 10, 15, 20); this was done as a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design, with three replications. The interactions between AMF, PGPR, and cadmium on potassium and iron concentration, height, and dry weight of Arizona cypress seedlings were significant. By increasing the concentration of cadmium in most of the treatments, the colonization, phosphorus, potassium and iron concentrations, height and dry weight of the shoot Arizona cypress seedlings were decreased, while the percentage of electrolyte leakage and proline content were increased. The AMF-inoculated plants increased phosphorus, potassium and iron concentrations, Height, shoot dry weight, proline content and reduced electrolyte leakage percentage, as compared to non-mycorrhizal (control) plants. In plants inoculated with both microorganism (mycorrhizal fungi and Pseudomonas), there was a positive effect regarding the concentration of nutrients such as potassium and iron; there was also the improvement of growth characteristics such as height and dry weight of the seedlings, as well as the appearance and freshness of the plant. The results, therefore, showed that inoculation of Arizona cypress seedlings with the combination of mycorrhizal fungi and Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria could have a positive effect on the growth and survival of this tree under Cadmium stress condition.

Drought is one of the most detrimental abiotic stresses for turfgrass growth across a wide range of geographic locations. Most cool-season grass species are not well adapted to extended periods of drought, particularly during summer months. Decline in turf quality caused by drought stress is a major concern in turfgrass culture. Therefore, developing management practices for improving drought resistance of turfgrasses has become essential in arid and semi-arid regions, especially during water use restriction. One strategy to improve plant drought resistance is to promote drought avoidance by reducing water loss during drought, which may be achieved by slowing growth rate of shoots and lowering leaf area canopy to reduce demand for water. Application of growth regulators is one of the methods for increasing resistance of plants to biotic and abiotic stresses. Trinexapac-ethyl (TE) is one of the most widely used PGRs in the management of cool-season and warm-season turfgrass species. TE absorbed quickly by foliage and slow cell elongation through inhibiting of converting one form of gibberellic acid (GA20) to another (GA1). Most studies conducted under non-stressed conditions found that TE application increased chlorophyll content, turf quality, turf density and reduced shoot extension rate. We hypothesized that TE may influence plant tolerance to drought stress. Limited available data─ as reported in the above referred studies─ suggest that TE application may be beneficial for plant tolerance to stresses, but the effectiveness varies with turfgrass species, dose and duration of TE treatment, and type of stress. The main aim of this research is to evaluate the effect of Trinexapac-ethyl on increased resistance to drought stress in wheatgrass.
Wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum L.) was used in this study. This study was conducted in field conditions at Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran.. Wheatgrass native seeds (Agropyron desertorum L.), collected from the turfgrass research farm at Fereydan, Isfahan, which were cultivated hand broadcast in plots (3m × 2m) with seeding rates of 30 gm–2. A factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted for TE (Primo Maxx; Syngenta Crop Protection, Inc., Greensboro, NC) and drought stress. Treatments involved three levels of Trinexapac-ethyl growth regulator (0, 0.25 and 0.5 kg/h) and two levels of drought stress (with irrigation and without irrigation). After planting, the plots were irrigated to maintain soil moisture at 80% field capacity or higher. Irrigation was applied as required to prevent any drought stress during grass establishment. Turfgrass species were maintained at cutting height of 4 cm and were mowed once a week using a reel-type mower. All data were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) and Fisher’s protected LSD test was employed at the 5% probability level.
Results indicated that Trinexapac-ethyl and drought reduced growth, fresh weight and dried above ground organs significantly. Wheatgrass growth in concentrations 0.25 and 0.5 kg/h were 19.20 and 26.90%, respectively. Previous studies reported plants that have slow-growing shoots may survive more extended periods than faster-growing plants in drought conditions. Slow growth may reduce the adverse impact of drought by conserving water and carbon energy, and plants can use limited water to survive drought for an extended period of time. Unlike drought stress, Trinexapac-ethyl improved the quality of plant tissues and their color. Increase in turf quality under TE treatment might occur as a result of improved canopy photosynthesis capacity and single-leaf photochemical efficiency. Drought stress reduced relative water and chlorophyll content, increased proline level and finally led to electrolyte leakage. Trinexapac-ethyl improved wheatgrass in drought stress conditions by increasing relative water content, prolin, chlorophyll and decreasing electrolyte leakage and increased wheatgrass to drought stress resistance. Proline acts as an osmotic regulator in cytoplasm and vacuoles, protects proteins against dehydration, adjusts osmosis; detoxify radical active oxygen species, keeping more stable antioxidant enzymes. Proline immediate increase under drought stress is associated with decreasing leaf water content, in turn, induced drought tolerance. Under drought stress conditions, penetration of root depth and effective root depth has been increased, while Trinexapac-ethyl did not affect root traits significantly. The results of the present study indicated that TE decreased damages on drought stress probably via improving turf quality, chlorophyll concentration, leaf water content, proline content and less electrolyte leakage in Wheatgrass.

Maximum Allowable Depletion (MAD) by affecting on number of irrigation in growing season and irrigation use reduction can be used as a managerial tool to save water. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of MAD in irrigation interval, applied irrigation water, top and root growth of grass under subsurface drip irrigation system. Three irrigation treatments which were MAD equal to 40%(W1), 60%(W2), and 80%(W3) arranged in a randomized complete blocks statistical design with three replications in 2012 and 2013 in Isfahan University of Technology. The soil moisture was measured daily using Moisture Meter GMK-770S in the root zone depth of grass to manage irrigation. The apparent parameters and root parameters of grass were collected periodically. These parameters were analyzed by Duncan's multiple range test and the results showed that the irrigation treatments had no significant effect on the root growth parameters and top weight. In the depth of 0-13 cm the maximum root volumetric density and fresh and dry root weighted density were occurred in W1, W2 and W3 treatments, respectively. On the average, 80.14% of the mentioned parameters were in of 0-5 cm depth and 19.86% of them were in of 5-13 cm depth. The maximum (3.93g/day) and minimum (3.21/day) dry biomass were observed in W1 and W3 treatments, respectively. Overall, the results indicated that although the increment of MAD to 80% in a clay-loam soil slightly decreased the shoot and root growth of mix sport grass under a subsurface drip irrigation system, it is a reasonable management solution with the aim of conserving water in the water shortage condition which had the least negative effect on apparent parameters of grass.

In recent years application of plant growth regulators especially growth retardants, has been significantly increased. Trizols (paclobutrzol and trinexapac-ethyl) as the most effective and least harmful growth retardants, induce more dwarf and denser cover plants with both darker and thicker leaves. Therefore, an experiment based on completely randomized block design with 16 treatments and 3 replicates, was conducted to investigate the effect of paclobutrzol and trinexapac-ethyl application on morphological and physiological characteristics of rosemari and thuja “Morgan” as two hedge plants. Immediately after pruning, foliar spray was applied on each plant with 1000 and 4000 mg/l of paclobutrzol or 1000 mg/l of trinexapac-ethyl. Distilled water was used as control. Measured traits were included plant height and width, wet and dry weight of pruned parts, internode elongation, proline content, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll content. Results indicated that growth retardants decreased plant height and width, wet and dry weight of pruned parts and internode elongation, while they increased proline content, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll content as compared to the control plants.

Plane tree is one of the major tree used in urban landscapes of Iran. One of its serious problem is chlorosis and leaf abscission in many parts of the country. The current investigation was conducted to evaluate the effect of inoculation of plane trees (Platanus orientalis L.) with mycorrhizal fungus on response of plane trees in two years (2011 and 2012). An open field experiment conducted based on a randomized complete block design with 4 treatments and 6 replicates in Isfahan University of Technology. Treatments were as follwoings: livestock manure¡ chemical complete fertilizer¡ manure fertilizer mycorrhiza fungi and control (no fertilizer). The results showed that inoculation of plane trees with mycorrhizal fungus caused singnificant increase in most growth and physiological indices such as growth of current season shoots¡ total soluble sugar content¡ chlorophyll content¡ photosythetic indices and stomatal pattern ( diameter and number of open stomata).¡ To sum up the results revealed that inocultion of plants with mycorrhizal fungus¡ improved plants growth accordingly through its positive influence on stomata behavior¡ chlorophyll content and subsequently increase in photosynthesis.

Plane tree is one of the important trees cultivated in urban landscapes of Iran and often suffers from different nutritional issues including deficiency and toxicity of mineral nutrients. Mycorrhizal fungi have been introduced to increase growth and quality of plants in horticulture. To study the combined effect of two mycorrhizal fungi (G. mosseae and G. intraradices) on plane trees, an experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with 4 treatments and 6 replicates. Treatments included control (without fertilizer), livestock manure, complete fertilizer (20:5:10) and manure fertilizer mycorrhizal fungi. Some traits and indices including phosphorus, nitrogen, iron and zinc contents, leaf fresh weight, current year growth and total soluble carbohydrate and chlorophyll contents were evaluated. The results showed the positive effects of manure, fertilizer and mycorrhizal fungi on the plane tree, as these treatments significantly increased all examined parameters except for current year growth. Contents of phosphorus, nitrogen, zinc, iron, chlorophyll and total soluble sugar increased by 400%, 20%, 500%, 34%, 41% and 23%, in mycorrhizal-treated plants, respectively, as compared to the control trees. The results of this study showed a promising effect of the mycorrhizal fungi to be applied along with fertilizer and manure as an appropriate biological fertilizer for plane tree.

The objective of this study was to evaluate emitters clogging by root of grass for four types of inline emitters under subsurface drip irrigation system. The experimental treatments consisted of four discharge emitters include 3.5, 4, 2.2 and 2 liters per hour (respectively T3, T2, T1 and T4). The four treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications for two years. The soil texture of site was silty clay loam. Uniformity indexes at the beginning and end of the experiment consists of emitter flow variation (qvar), coefficient of variation (CV), coefficient of uniformity (CU), emission uniformity (EU), Range and statistical uniformity (Us)were measured. The EU value was 96, 87, 94, and 94% for new emitter in the beginning of the experiment and was 79, 19, 45, and 85% in the terminated of the experiment for T1, T2, T3, and T4 treatments, respectively. Our results showed that emitter clogging by root were 4% for T1 and T4 treatments, 24% for T2 and 36% for T3 treatments. Based on the findings emitters that were installed in the pipe (flat integral drip line) was more efficient than the cylindrical tube emitters clogging rooted.

In this experiment¡ the effects of drought stress and different levels of shade was studied on growth characteristics of transplant dwarf cultivar „Matador‟ of Lisianthus in a factorial design with two factors of irrigation and shade. After germination and in the 2-3 leaf stage of plantlet¡ treatments were carried out such as irrigation (100%¡ 75%¡ 50% of FC) and shade (0%¡ 50%¡ 70% of natural light intensity). 100%¡ 75%¡ 50% of FC irrigation equivalent 1 day after¡ 2 days after and 3 days after irrigation and 0%¡ 50%¡ 70% shades equivalent full sunlight (an average of measured radiation of 1852 µmol m-2 s-1)¡ 50% (an average of transmitted radiation of 926 µmol m-2 s-1)¡ 30% (an average of transmitted radiation of 557 µmol m-2 s-1 ) of light intensity¡ have been carried out¡ respectively. 100% of FC irrigation (1 day after irrigation) and 0% shade (natural light intensity) were considered control. According to the results the number of flowers and flowering branches decreased significantly¡ by increasing the irrigation levels; while the number of days from planting to flowering was increased. With increasing shade level compared to 0% (no shade) flower number¡ flower diameter and number of flower branch were increased. Maximum wet and dry shoot weight¡ relative chlorophyll content¡ soluble carbohydrate and photosynthetic performance were obtained with 100% of FC and 50% of shade. This treatment is recommended to produce seedlings dwarf cultivar „Matador‟ of lisianthus in nursery for urban landscaping of the current experiment conditions.

A few information about the combined effects of different environmental stress on turfgrass physiology and growth is available. Also, a separate study of environmental factors on plant cannot be a suitable model for natural conditions. This study was conducted to investigate the interactive effects of different levels of shade (0, 50, and 70%) and water treatments (well-watered and non-irrigated) on visual quality and root characteristics of wheatgrass (Agropyron deserturum L.) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb. ‘Forager’) in a factorial arrangement based on a completely randomized design. Under different levels of shade (50 and 70%), the negative effects of drought stress on the rate of dehydration, visual quality, ion leakage and the mortality rate of surface and deep roots was reduced. According to the ornamental performance, tall fescue had better performance than the wheatgrass under drought stress conditions and full sunlight, but wheatgrass was more successful than tall fescue under drought stress and 70% shade level. Under moderate shade (50%) and drought stress, tall fescue spent more time to dehydrate than wheatgrass. It can be concluded that in water stress conditions, shading could be useful to cope with drought stress, which needs to be further investigated.

Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic stresses which significantly reduce yield and growth of most of plants. Plane tree is one of the important trees planted in the urban landscapes of Iran. One of the major limiting factors of landscapes development is providing water for plants. Deficit irrigation is a desirable method for saving water use in water deficit conditions and ultimately reducing necessary cost of water securement to landscape plants. Moreover, inoculation of plant root with mycorrhizal fungi can be considered as a method to reduce water demand of plants. In addition, mycorrhiza can increase plant resistance against environmental stress, such as salinity, temperature stress, drought stress and etc. Mycorrhiza can improve drought stress through enhancing water uptake as result of extra radical hyphae and stomatal regulation or transpiration. Increasing P concentration by mycorrhiza inoculation can be another mechansim for drought resistance in plants. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate two Glomus species in combination together on plane tree under water deficit for growth characteristics and nutrients uptake such as P, Fe and Zn concentration.
This outdoor experiment was conducted at - Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran, with average temperature 14.2 ºC and 27.9 ºC night/day, respectively and relative humidity 35-70% between Mar and Aug 2012 and repeated under the same condition in 2013. This experiment was carried out to evaluate the effect of inoculation with mycorrhizal fungus on plane saplings response to different applicable water levels (50 and 100% of water needs) based on a completely randomized design with 3 replications. The treatments were control (without fertilizer), Germans peat fertilizer, Germans peat fertilizer mycorrhiza in 50% of field capacity and Germans peat fertilizer mycorrhizain 100% of field capacity. The Mycorrhiza fungi (mycorrhizal root, soil containing spore and extra radical mycelium) were obtained from Institute of Soil and Water Research (Tehran, Iran). There were inoculums treatments: two AM fungus inoculums (G. intraradices and G. mosseae) with combination of both. The inoculated dosage was approximately 80 spores g-1 for G. intraradices and 80 spores g-1 for G. mosseae, calculated by microscope before the experiment. Plants were irrigated daily base of 100% FC after the confidence of establishing plants about 2 months and then differential irrigations were applied. The amount of 100 and 50% ET was applied for full irrigation, moderate and serve deficit irrigation, respectively. To monitor the soil water content, tensiometry probe tubes were inserted into the soil in control pot around the root. Irrigation was performed whenever 40% of the available water was consumed. In order to calculate the amount of water necessary to bring each soil to FC, soil samples were collected and the water content determined by drying. Photosynthesis rate was measured with a LCI portable photosynthesis system. Soluble sugars measured according to Phenol–Sulfuric Acid method. Extraction of the Leaf chlorophyll pigments using with 100% acetone. The extraction of P, K, Fe, and Zn from the plant tissue material was performed by using dry ashing method. The mean data of two years were analyzed with SAS 9.1 software, the means were compared for significance by the least significant difference (LSD) test at P Mycorrhiza inoculation significantly increased fresh and dry weight, chlorophyll content, total sugar, leaf area, photosynthesis rate and P and K concentration as compared to control. As compared to the 100 and 50% FC, total chlorophyll, fresh and dry weight and P concentration significantly was increased in 100% FC (Table 4 & 5). The results showed that inoculation of plants with mycorrhizal fungus significantly increased most growth parameters including leaf area, chlorophyll content and leaf fresh and dry weight of plane saplings. Phosphorus content significantly increased in inoculated plants as compared to non-inoculated plants. It is recommended that in dry regions and water shortage conditions, the deficit irrigation method accompanied with mycorrhizal fungus inoculation to save water.
Our data showed that mycorrhiza inoculations increased most growth parameters including leaf area, chlorophyll content and leaf fresh and dry weight of plane saplings. In conclusion, mycorrhiza inoculations can increase plant tolerance against drought stress by increasing phosphorus concentration, chlorophyll content, and photosynthesis rate. Generally, results of this study revealed that inoculation of plane tress with mycorrhizal fungi, improved plant growth under stress conditions through its positive influence on nutrients uptake, chlorophyll content and other growth parameters.

Woad (Isatis cappadocica Desv.) is a herbal plant, native to central and western Asia and from Brassicaceae family. In this research, we have investigated the effects of different irrigation levels on plant morphological and physiological attributes including canopy area, roots and shoots dry and fresh weight, roots length, proline concentration, shoots soluble carbohydrates content and antioxidant enzymes activity in a 4-replicate completely randomized design pot experiment. Irrigation regims consisted of replenishment of 100, 75 and 50 percent of soil water depletion (I100, I75 and I50) from the root zone. Results showed that drought stress had not significantly affected plants canopy area. The lowest and highest shoots fresh and dry weights were recorded in treatments I100 and I75-50, respectively. Roots fresh and dry weight and proline concentration were greater in I50 than the remaining irrigation levels. The shoot soluble carbohydrates content and root length were greatest in I50 level followed by I75 and I100. Also, there was an increasing trend in antioxidant enzymes activity from the second to fourth week after the commence of irrigation treatment. In I50, activity of ascorbat peroxidase, peroxidase and catalase enzymes were greater than the other irrigation levels. Superoxide dismutase was found to indicate greatest activities at the presence of I50 and I75 levels of irrigation.

In recent decade, establish and maintenance of turf grasses is faced with serious doubts due to reduction of precipitation and water resources. So, identification of drought-resistant native and rangeland species, and introducing them as turf grass not only is effective in reducing water consumption, but also help to preserve the genetic resources of the country. In order to evaluate the usability of native grasses of Iran as drought resistance grass, Wheat grass and Bromus were compared with Perennial ryegrass (Control). In this experiment, drought stress treatments were applied with irrigation withholding, and continued until the entire shrivel of all species shoots. During the stress period, shoot growth, leaf color, relative water content, prolin content, leaf width, shrivel percentage, root penetration, root fresh and dry weight, effective depth of root density and shoot fresh and dry weight were measured. The results of this research showed that reduction of shoot growth in Bromus occur sooner than two other species. The decline of relative water content and changes of leaf width were lesser in Wheat grass than two other species. Increasing of shrivel percentage in Wheat grass was done with more delayed than two other species. Prolin content in Perennial ryegrass was the most and in Bromus was the least. The measurements related to root and shoot traits was the least in Bromus and the most in Wheat grass. Moreover, the recovery in Wheat grass was done completely and faster. In aggregate, Wheat grass could be introduced as a drought resistance grass instead of Perennial ryegrass.

Application of growth reterdants such as trinexapac-ethyl has become popular in turf grass management. The principle goal to apply these substances is to reduce lawn vertical growth, prevent inflorescence development and increasing biotic and abiotic tolerance. The aim of the present research wasto investigatethe effect of different trinexapac-ethyl levels (0, 0.25 and 0.5 Kg/h) and traffic stress on morphological and physiological traits of tall fescue cultivar Rebel. Experiment was carried out as a factorial based on completely randomized design in three replicates. Results showed that trinexapac-ethyl and traffic significantly decreased height, dry and fresh weight. Growth reduction in 0.25 and 0.5 Kg/h of trinexapac-ethyl was about 18.84 and 22.06%, respectively. Trinexapac-ethyl application led to increase density, tillering and chlorophyll, amount while traffic treatment reduced relative chlorophyll amount, density and tillering, significantly. Its application at concentration of 0.5 Kg/h increased tillering about 36% and traffic stress reduced it about 17.2%. Results also indicated that, trinexapac-ethyl and traffic treatment increased shoots soluble carbohydrates, significantly, whereas this substance did not affect root soluble carbohydrates in comparison to traffic. Trinexapac-ethyl increased tall fescue traffic stress resistance by increasing relative water content and decreasing electrolyte leakage in traffic stress conditions.