maryam nezakat alhosseini

Most falls in the elderly occur due to physical and cognitive risk factors. This study aims to compare the effect of two types of mind-body exercises, yoga and square-stepping exercise (SSE), on memory, balance, and fear of falling in older women.

A quasi-experimental study was conducted on 20 elderly women with an age range of 60 to 70 years. Participants were selected through purposive sampling and were randomly assigned to yoga and Square-Stepping groups. Both groups did exercise for 12 weeks and participated in a pre-test and post-test. The Wechsler memory test, stork test, berg balance test, and international falls efficacy scale were used to measure memory quotient, static balance, dynamic balance, and fear of falling, respectively. Analysis of variance with repeated measures was conducted to analyze the data

The mean scores of memory quotient in the two groups after exercises were significantly higher than before exercises (F(1, 18)=32.692, P<0.001, η2=0.645). The mean static balance time in the yoga group was significantly higher than in the SSE group (F(1, 18)=60.755, P<0.001, η2=0.771). Furthermore, the mean dynamic balance score in the SSE group was significantly higher than in the yoga group (F(1, 18)=7.714, P=0.012, η2=0.300). In addition, the mean square of fear of falling in the SSE group was significantly lower than in the yoga group (F(1, 18)=11.777, P=0.003, η2=0.396).

It seems that square stepping exercises can also be used as a simple exercise program to improve physical and cognitive functions in older women.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of cognitive-behavioral stress management instruction on the competitive anxiety of karate girls.
Twenty professional karate ‘girls were selected based on the score in Schmidt et al sports anxiety questionnaire had high anxiety levels and a randomized replication design was used to allocate them to the experimental and control groups. They were competing in the superior league of Iran.  Cognitive-behavioral stress management was instructed once a week, and 10 sessions were held. Data about sports anxiety in the pre-test, after the intervention, and three months after the end of the intervention were collected and analyzed.
The results showed that the somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption significantly decreased between the pre-test with post-test and between the pre-test and follow-up.
It seems to raise awareness, stress reduction skills training; cognitive evaluation modification, interpersonal skills development; an increase of emotional expression, and a decrease of social isolation that exists in this program are the causes of the changes that occur.

The current study aimed to determine the effect of yoga exercises on executive functions among individuals with schizophrenia. Deficits in cognitive abilities are widely recognized as a core feature of schizophrenia. Among the cognitive impairments, executive functions have a more effective role in limiting the ability of patients to maintain and relearn the skills required to operate in the real world. Studies indicated that practicing yoga could improve abstraction and mental flexibility, spatial processing, working memory, spatial memory, emotion processing, attention and recall. Besides, it could reduce reaction times and increase accuracy in executive function tasks in various settings. Accordingly, in the present study, the researchers provided a yoga intervention program to patients with schizophrenia, assuming that by practicing this course, the study subjects could improve their executive functions.

This was a quasi–experimental study with a pretest–posttest and a control group design. It was conducted on 24 patients with schizophrenia (adult females) in Isfahan City, Iran. The study participants were randomly assigned into two groups of experimental and control. The experimental group underwent a 20–week yoga training. Wisconsin software was used to evaluate the executive functions of studied samples. A repeated–measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied to analyze the collected data.

According to the repeated–measures ANOVA results of the preservative variable, the interaction between time and group (F44,2 =3.417, p=0.042, h=0.134) was significant at the error level of 5%. The Bonferroni post–hoc test data revealed that the mean score in the intervention group was significantly higher in pretest than the posttest (p=0.001) and follow–up (p=0.049) phases; however, there was no significant difference between the results of posttest and follow–up (p=0.624) in this group. These results highlight the effectiveness of the intervention on reducing the preservative variable immediately after the intervention as well as its stability after the intervention. In the “correct answers” variable, the interaction between the experimental group and the time scale (F44, 2=5.171, p=0.010, h=0.190) was significant at the error level of 5%. The Bonferroni post–hoc test data in the intervention group indicated that the mean number of correct answers in the pretest was significantly less than that of the posttest (p=0.003) and follow–up (p=0.008) in the study participants. Furthermore, there was no significant difference (p=0.001) between the mean score of correct answers in posttest and follow–up stages in them. Therefore, the intervention effectively increased the number of correct answers and this effect continued after the completion of intervention. In the incorrect answer variable, the interaction between the experimental group and the time scale (F44, 2=5.329, p=0.008, h=0.195) was significant at the error level of 5%. The Bonferroni post–hoc test findings manifested that in the intervention group, the mean frequency of incorrect answers in the pretest was significantly less than that of the posttest (p=0.001) and follow–up (p=0.007) stages. Besides, there was no significant difference between the mean frequency of correct answers in posttest and follow–up stages (p=0.001). Therefore, the intervention was effective in reducing the frequency of correct answers; this effectiveness remained stable after the interruption of intervention. Regarding the required time of attempt completion, the interaction between the experimental group and the time scale (F 44.2=6.140, p=0.004, h=0.218) was significant at the error level of 5%. The Bonferroni post–hoc test results in the intervention group revealed a significantly higher mean time in the pretest than the posttest (p<0.001) and follow–up (p<0.001) phases. In addition, there was no significant difference (p=0.001) between the meantime in the posttest and follow–up stages.

Following 20 weeks of yoga practice, the study participants in the yoga intervention group revealed significantly improved performance in executive functions. Yoga has been supported to have immediate psychological effects, including decreased anxiety, depression, and stress, as well as positive modifications in perceived executive functioning. Studies suggested that yoga has an immediate quieting effect on the sympathetic nervous system; hypothalamic and pituitary-adrenal axis responses to stress. The provided 20–week yoga intervention may have resulted in improved psychological states, which led to enhanced cognitive performance in the executive function tasks of the test group. Eventually, yoga exercises could improve cognitive abilities by affecting the structural and functional properties of the brain.

Aging is a part of the natural process of human life and is a dynamic, progressive, and irreversible process closely related to biological, psychological, and social factors Most of the body's physiological functions, such as the central and peripheral nervous systems, deteriorate over time in the aging process. One of the physical and mental health problems is falling, which will reduce daily activities in the elderly. Studies have shown that falls in the elderly are associated with lower limb weakness, especially imbalance and poor cognitive functions. Overview research shows that falls are one of the leading causes of death in the elderly population, and older adults who fall are hospitalized ten times more often than normal people. Prevention of falls in the elderly is one of society's primary concerns. In the meantime, exercise, and physical activity are beneficial factors in preventing falls in the elderly. In the past, it was believed that only exercise at a young age would help increase endurance in old age, while research has shown that exercise is beneficial for anyone of any age. Exercise with a suitable duration and intensity reduces the risk of falling. Because most falls occur due to the interaction between multiple physical and cognitive risk factors; therefore, to prevent and reduce falls, methods should be used that include all risk factors. Therefore, it seems helpful to use mental and physical exercises that can simultaneously affect the mind and body and improve motor, physical and cognitive functions in the elderly. Research has shown that mind-body exercises can reduce the rate of falls in the elderly by affecting balance and cognitive function. Exercises such as yoga, tai chi, Pilates, and more recently, Square-Stepping EExercises (SSE) are among these exercises. The SSE exercises are low-cost, home-based, safe exercises that do not require special sports equipment that can be easily used by the elderly. Therefore, in the present study, researchers investigated the difference between the effect of Pilates and SSA exercises, which have recently been used in research, on cognitive and physical functions related to falling and fear of falling in older women. If the beneficial effect of the mentioned exercises is the same, the use of SSE exercises can be recommended as an alternative method of training that can be easily performed at home and by the person herself in comparison with other types of mental-physical exercises. It is hoped that the the present study results can be used by people active in this field.

A quasi-experimental study was conducted on 20 older women (60 to 70 years old). Participants were selected through convenience sampling. The code of ethics (IR.UI.REC.1399.046) was obtained from the Scientific Research Committee of the University of Isfahan. The participants completed the consent form. Then, they were randomly assigned to Pilates (N=10) and square-stepping (N=10) groups. Both groups did exercises for 12 weeks (3 days a week for 70 minutes) and participated in a pre-test and post-test. Pilates exercises largely avoid high impact, high power output, and heavy muscular and skeletal loading. As the elderly progressed, the complexity of the exercises increased. The Square Stepping Exercises were performed on a thin mat measuring 250x100 cm, which was divided into 40 squares of 25x25 cm. Participants were asked to follow the pattern from the beginning of the mat to the end. The patterns were explained and displayed by the instructor. Once the seniors became familiar with the gait pattern, they were asked to walk on their toes so that they did not step on the square lines. The step patterns included forward, backward, lateral, and diagonal steps, and the patterns gradually became more complex. A total of 196 step patterns were designed based on difficulty level progress in eight categories (beginner 1 and 2, intermediate 1 and 2 and 3, advanced 1 and 2 and 3), which according to the existing conditions, a total of 156 step patterns in six levels (beginner 1 and 2, intermediate 1, 2 and 3, advanced 1) were performed. Each step pattern was repeated four to ten times according to the learning of the elderly. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Wechsler Memory test, Stork Test, Berg Balance Scale, and The Falls Efficacy International Scale were used to measure executive functions, memory quotient, static balance, dynamic balance, and fear of falling, respectively. Analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to analyze the collected data.

Results showed that the main effect of time in categories achieved (F(1,18)=112.03, P<0.001, =0.862), perseverative errors (F(1,18)=147.49, P<0.001, =0.891), memory quotient (F(1,18)=45.44, P<0.001, =0.716), static balance (F(1,18)=48.78, P<0.001, =0.730), dynamic balance (F(1,18)=29.51, P<0.001, =0.621), and fear of falling (F(1,18)=54.68, P<0.001, =0.752) were significant, and the mean scores of perseverative errors and fear of falling decreased in the post-test compared with the pre-test. In addition, the mean scores of categories achieved, memory quotient, static balance, and dynamic balance were higher in the post-test relative to the pre-test. In addition, results indicated no significant main effect of group and the interaction of group and time.

The study results showed improving cognitive and physical functions related to falling and reducing the fear of falling following Pilates and square stepping exercises. Therefore, the use of both training methods can be recommended as multidimensional interventions to improve cognitive functions (executive functions and memory), physical functions (static and dynamic balance), and reduce the fear of falling in older women. The SSE compared to Pilates has recently been proposed in research in this field due to the fact that there is no difference in the effect of these two training methods and the unique advantages of the SSE compared to Pilates, including portability of training mats, low cost and simple design, the possibility of performing these exercises in different open and closed environments, especially at home and without the need for instructor supervision. Preferring these exercises seems an easier and more accessible option for the elderly.  

Compliance with ethical guidelines The present study was conducted after confirmation and receiving the code of ethics (IR.UI.REC.1399.046) from the Scientific Research Committee of the University of Isfahan. Besides, an informed consent form was obtained from participants.

The first author did the data collection, and the second and third authors were involved in research design and data analysis.

This study was funded by personal funds. Acknowledgments The present research is an excerpt from a master's thesis. We would like to thank the elderly of Kuhpayeh, who participated in the present study, and Ms. Buroni, who worked with the researchers in this study as a Pilates instructor. Conflict of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of yoga training on attention and positive/negative symptoms in women with schizophrenia.

A quest-experimental study was conducted on a number of 25 patients with schizophrenia (mean age 46.00±6.48). The participants were selected through purposire sampling and were randomly assigned to yoga training (15 n) and control (10 n) groups. The yoga training group did yoga for 12 weeks; however, the control group performed their daily activities. Both groups participated in a pre-test and post-test. Stroop Test, and Positive/Negative Scales, were used to collect the data. Analyze of Covariance (ANOVA) was used to analyses the collected data.

A significant difference was found between the yoga and control groups in pre-test and post-test in selective attention and positive/negative symptoms.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the yoga training can be an appropriate intervention to improve attention and decrease positive/negative symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a selected exercise period on soft and hard surfaces on the static balance of children with autism spectrum disorder. Twenty children with autism spectrum disorder (age 7.8±2.81 years) were selected by use of convenience sampling from Ordibehesht Autism Center of Isfahan. Then, they were matched for age, sex, height, weight and autism index and assigned into two groups of 10 persons whom exercised on a soft surface and hard surface. They participated in a period of selected balance exercises for 24 sessions (three times a week). Static balance of these children was evaluated in the pretest and post-test by assessing the amount of displacement of the center of pressure in the anteroposterior and mediolateral directions while standing on the Foot Scan for 18 seconds. To analyze the data, the mixed (2 × 2) variance analysis was used (p <0.05).  The results showed that static balance with open eyes of both groups improved significantly after the intervention. However, there was not significant difference between the two groups of exercise on the soft and hard surfaces. Exercise on surfaces with different stiffness improves the balance of children with autism spectrum disorder by reinforcement of the proprioceptors.

This study was aimed at the determination of the effect of sports vision training on visual-motor perception and performance in karate kata.

The participants were 24 athletic in karate kata (10-12 yr) with an orange belt in Kata. Participants were chosen and randomly assigned into two groups of sports vision training (n=12) and control (n=12). The pretest includes visual-motor perception test and measurement of karate kata performance. After the pretest, vision training group engaged in kata practice and sports vision training for 8 weeks. During this period, the control group only engaged in kata practice. After completion of the training course, a posttest similar to the pretest was administered. For Data analysis, analysis of covariance was used.

The findings showed the superiority of the vision training group in visual-motor perception and performance in Kata.

The finding showed that sports vision exercise can increase the performance of closed skills.

Sequential learning is an inseparable part of language development. Children who have difficulty to perform sequential motor tasks are poorer in the language skills as well. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effect of sequential motor training on language development of children with the cochlear implant.

This study was quasi-experimental kind with pretest-posttest design, in which 22 children (9 girls and 13 boys) aged 4 to 8 years who were randomly selected and assigned into two groups of experimental and control. The experimental group underwent a twelve-week sequential motor training of taekwondo. Phonological awareness, reading and dyslexia tests (NEMA) were used to collect data on phonological awareness and reading performance, respectively. The data were analyzed using analysis of covariance.

The results showed that, after the twelve weeks of taekwondo training, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in phonological awareness and reading performance.

According to the obtained results, there seems to be a strong relationship between language and motor systems, and sequential motor training, in the case of taekwondo training, which can be an effective exercise method to improve language skills of children with the cochlear implant

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of yoga practice on motor functions of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The participants were 26 children with the disorder (aged between six and ten years old) who were selected using the convenience sampling technique. They were then randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The experimental group participated in yoga practice for twelve weeks while control group dealt with their daily activities during this period. Both groups participated in a pretest and posttest and after four months, they performed the follow-up test. The results showed that yoga practice had a positive effect on motor functions (reaction time, movement time and response time) in children with the disorder. The findings of this study indicated that yoga practice can be used to improve motor functions in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of working memory capacity on the observational learning of sequential timing tasks.
A quasi-experimental research was conducted on a number of 20 university students with a mean age of 21.5 years (SD = 1.5) who were selected through convenience sampling and were assigned to high and low working memory groups based on memory quotient scores. Wechler digit span adults test and Sequential timing apparatus were used to collect the data, and evaluate working memory quotient and relative and absolute timing, respectively. The task required participants to press four keys on a numeric keypad (2→6→8→4) with regard to the absolute and relative movement times. All participants observed 72 trials during the practice phase, and performed 12 trials during the immediate, delayed and transfer phases. Analysis of covariance was used to analyze the collected data.
The analyses demonstrated that during the immediate, delayed and transfer phases, relative and absolute timing errors were significantly lower for high working memory groups, but not for the low working memory groups.
Therefore, it seems that working memory capacity may affect learning sequential motor tasks during observational learning.

The study investigated effects of mild dehydration on selective and sustained attention. 22 female students participated in a quasi-experimental study. Convenience sampling was used and participants were assigned to three basic, hydration, and dehydration conditions, counterbalancelly. In the basic condition, they had no physical activity, but in hydration and dehydration conditions, they completed a 60-minute exercise protocol of walking on a treadmill and bicycling. Data were collected using Simple Stroop and Continuous Performance Test V.4. A significant main effect was found for exercise condition. No interaction was found for exercise condition and attention. In dehydrated condition, selective and sustained attention’s mean scores were higher than control and hydrated conditions (p0.05) was found between selective and sustained attention’s mean scores in control and hydrated conditions. Accordingly, mild dehydration affected selective and sustained attention. Therefore, it seems necessary to consider optimal hydration during exercise .

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 10 weeks of shadow play on preschool children's fundamental movement skills. In this quasi-experimental study with pretest/posttest design and a control group, 28 girls and boys (6 years old) were selected by convenience sampling method from children in a preschool and were randomly divided into the experimental group (5 girls & 9 boys) and the control group (5 girls & 9 boys). For 10 weeks (three 45-minute sessions), the experimental group performed the shadow play and the control group had their routine activities of preschool. The pretest and the posttest were administered by "the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Test (M-ABC)". This test consisted of three subtests of manual dexterity, ball skills and balance skills. Analysis of data was performed by covariance analysis (α=0.05). The results showed that 10 weeks of shadow play had a significant effect on subtests of manual dexterity, balance skills and the total score of fundamental skills but had no significant effects on ball skills. Findings of this study showed that shadow play may improve preschool children's fundamental movement skills.

Freezing of gait (FOG) is a common and disabling feature of Parkinson’s disease (PD).This phenomenon is associated with cognitive functions. So, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks cognitive training on freezing of gait in patients with Parkinson’s disease.
A quasi-experimental study was conducted on 14 Parkinson’s disease patients (mean age 60.21±10.92 years) with freezing of gait (2-5 Hohn and Yahr scale). The participants were selected through convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to treatment (4 males and 3 females) and control (5 males and 2 females) groups. The treatment group received an 8-week cognitive training; however, the control group performed their daily activities. A questionnaire was used to collect the data. An analysis of covariance (α=0/05) was used to analyze the collected data.
The results showed that there is a significant effect of cognitive training on reducing freezing of gait severity, frequency and total scores for the treatment group compared with the control group (p Cognitive training can be an appropriate training method to help improve freezing of gait in patients with Parkinson’s disease.

Gait disorder can be considered as one of the main reasons of falls and injuries among patients with Parkinson’s disease. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of 8 weeks of specific executive training on gait difficulties in patients with Parkinson's disease.
The study followed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test/post-test design and a control group. The participants were 14 patients with Parkinson's disease (mean age 60.21±10.92 years) with freezing of gait (2-5 Hohn and Yahr scale) who were selected through convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to experimental (4 males and 3 females) and control (5 males and 2 females) groups. The experimental group received an 8-week specific executive training together with pharmaceutical treatment. However, the control group received pharmaceutical treatment only. Freezing of Gait Questionnaire was used to collect data on gait disorder. Also, an independent t-test was run to analyze the collected data.
The results indicated that specific executive training had a significant effect on reducing gait disorder scores for the experimental group compared with that in the control group (p It can be concluded that specific executive training can be an appropriate training method to help improve freezing of gait in individuals with freezing of gait.

The purpose of the present study is to investigate the effect of motor-perceptual training on attention in children with visual impairment. A single-case study was conducted on 3 children with the mean age of 5.5 ± 2.1 and visual impairment (VI) of 70/20 and 200/20. The participants were selected through convenience sampling and matched in terms of demographic features. Language Development Scale, Guzel motor-perceptual Scale, Stanford Binet Scale and Conner’s Neuropsychological Questionnaire were used to collect the data. Multiple baseline design is used. After the baseline situation was set, motor-perceptual training was performed about 8 weeks for the participants. Analysis of data demonstrate that perceptual–motor training had a significant effect on attention (Percentage of non- overlapping data = 87.5 and overlapping data = 12.5). Therefore, it can be concluded that motor-perceptual training can be an appropriate training method for improving attention in children with visual impairment.

The aim of this research was to study the relationship between family functioning and mental toughness in Paralympic athletes. This is a descriptive and correlational research. The sample statistics comprises 50 athletes who have competed in the London 2012 Paralympic Games. Data were measured using two questionnaires: Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire Golby and Sheard, and 45-factor Family Functioning Questionnaire. Reliability and validity of both questionnaires had been confirmed in previous studies. The results showed that there is a significant positive relationship between family functioning and mental toughness in Paralympics athletes. The three dimensions of family functioning were significant predictor variables in determining mental toughness. The findings revealed the importance of family functioning in the formation of mental toughness.

The present study was designed to determine the effect of different levels of body mass index (BMI) on fundamental motor skills in 6-year-old children of Isfahan city. For this purpose، fundamental motor skills of 19 underweight children (grade 3 thinness) and 19 children with normal weight and 19 overweight children who were matched according to their gender and socioeconomic background were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC). Among 8 items of M-ABC، normal weight and overweight children differed on only one-leg balance with preferred leg and normal weight and underweight children differed on only walking heels raised item. However، the total motor impairment score which was calculated by the summation of the 8 item scores was higher in underweight and overweight children than their normal weight peers.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of Yoga training on executive functions in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A quasi-experimental study was conducted on 26 children with ADHD. The participants, were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Conner’s Questionnaire (short form of parents and teacher), Wechsler Revised Intelligence Test, and a Cognitive-motor functions apparatus were used to collect the data on diagnosing the disorder, children’s IQ, and executive-motor functions, respectively. An Independent t-test and between groups ANOVA with repeated measures were used to analyze the collected data. A significant difference was found between the experimental and control groups in executive functions. The results showed that 12 weeks of yoga training had a significant effect on executive functions (response inhibition, vigilance, impulsivity and set-shifting). Therefore, it can be concluded that Yoga can be an efficient training method to help improving executive functions in individuals with ADHD.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of self-control feedback on relative and absolute timing through observational and physical practices. Participants (n=90) were randomly assigned to physical and observational practice (self-control, yoked, and instructor KR) groups. They practiced a sequential timing task, which required participants to press four keys (2, 6, 8, and 4) respectively with regard to relative and absolute timing. Self-control group received KR about the model's performance whenever they requested it whereas the other groups (yoked, instructor) had no control on the feedback schedules. They performed 72 trials during the acquisition phase and 12 trials in retention and transfer phases. ANOVA with repeated measures and a multi-factorial ANOVA were conducted to analyze the collected data. The results demonstrated that during the acquisition phase, relative timing errors were lower in the self-control and instructor groups. During the retention and transfer phases, relative timing errors were lower for the self-control compared with the yoked and instructor groups. In addition, during the retention and transfer phase, absolute timing errors were lower for the yoked compared with the self-control group.