mehdi akhavan

The essential movement of the soul is considered as one of the important and key foundations of transcendental wisdom, which brings many effects and results. One of the most important issues in this regard is to examine the relationship between the essential movement of the soul and the truth of perception. That is, what role does the essential movement of the soul play in human perceptions? And what effect does it have on the topics of science in Sadra's wisdom? The purpose of this research is to explain the impact of the essential movement of the soul on the truth of perception, which was done with a descriptive and analytical method and based on a library study. can be followed. The acceptance of the essential movement of the soul, in the dimension of the cognitive existence of perception, causes Mulla Sadra to put forward the rise of sensory and imaginary forms to the soul and to leave the rise of the solutions of the sages of Masha. He knows the acceptance of the essential movement of the soul and explains it based on the essential movement of the soul. It also considers the burden of intellectual abstraction and the perception of intellectual universals to be conditional on the essence. In the epistemological dimension, the soul, due to its existential elevation, becomes capable of the perfections of the truths beyond itself, and it brings a bearing other than the first bearing and the common bearing called the bearing of truth

The type and program of Kant's monetary philosophy in ethics is prescient and pre-empirical (or metaphysical) principles of ethics. With this goal in the foundation of metaphysics, ethics, moral value, absolutely, only the decent will is the good field; An intention that is determined by the moral law, absolute, rational and simple, and the motive of action is duty and not something else, including a feeling of compassion and a desire to achieve the result and obedience to God's orders. Kant presents various formulas for the moral law (universal law, universal law of nature, humanity, self-reflection and kingdom of ends). In Post-Criticism II, Kant relates the completion of abstraction to integration problems. One of the problems that Kant deals with is speed, relationships, and sexual intercourse, which can only be fulfilled legally in the form of marriage. In addition, marriage is not based on friendship or love, but based on sexual intercourse and agreement between a man and a woman for the exchange of sexual organs. This image of marriage and sexual relations raises various issues in Kant's field of ethics; including that opposition to individuality in the interaction between people, how is it gathered in the fulfillment of sex and marriage? Does Kant's formula of humanity make an exception in this case or does it somehow justify marriage in the same formula? Prohibition of ownership of a person's body, how can it be collected by marriage, which is the transfer of this ownership? The commentators of Kant answer these questions with the points that I will discuss in this article. Kant, along with theorists of physical law in ethics (such as Thomas Aquinas), believes that sexual intercourse with a married person is obviously devoid of any virtue, unless it is done with the motive of reproduction. Kant's opposition to certain sexual relations and/or sexual movements (such as masturbation, sexual relations with animals and homosexuals) can be understood in this context. Finally, in this article, the place of love in Kant's ethics is discussed and the question is whether we have a duty to love others.

Talking about the meaning of life and tying ethics and moral living with meaningful life, apart from any belief, has always been in the deep philosophical thought. Nigel made efforts in this field, who has his own intellectual-and-philosophical paradigms in the path of connecting biological ethics and meaningfulness of life. The purpose of the present research is to know the relationship between morality and meaning of life from philosophical perspective.

The used methodological approach is qualitative in which, through the analysis of Nigel works on ethics and the meaning of life, it has been achieved.

Believing in the alternative principle in ethics, Nigel acknowledges the fact that people have equal capacities and no person is superior to another. He considered the motivational foundation of morality in a person to be beyond desire and envisioned a moral action for him. He considers living ethically as a necessary component of the meaningfulness of life, and he believes that in addition to not believing in the world after death, the meaningfulness of this life can be achieved in the framework of biological ethics.

Results showed that due to coexistence, humans can influence each other’s lives and make the life of this world meaningful through moral prepositions, even if they do not believe in the afterlife. If we target the component of ethics and bioethics from our daily relationships and interactions, the life of this world will become an anomic focus and meaning will emerge from our personal and social relationships.

The current curriculum for MA in Islamic Theology was designed in 1384 (2005). After 16 years, now it needs both minor and major revisions in courses as well as its headlines. This includes eliminations, introductions, minor changes, or major changes. In this paper, drawing on the teaching experiences of the authors and others in this area, we propose a better-designed and a more comprehensive curriculum. In this proposal some courses are eliminated due to uselessness and some other necessary ones are introduced. Other revisions include change in the title of courses to better match with their content. In general, all courses are revised and updated one by one. By providing a report on the status quo, criticizing it, evaluating it, and suggesting an ideal situation, we propose a new curriculum. Although it probably has its own faults and will get old due time, it is clear that the current curriculum needs some major revisions.

Although the rule of individuation of reactions has been worldly common and accepted in the system of criminal justice, it is still confronted with certain problems. Considering the problem of moral luck, the article seeks to provide a special account of this rule. The problem of moral luck challenges our moral assessments. The main objection is that when we do not have control over our behavior, how can we be blamed for it. One of the potential responses neglected by researchers in the pre-behavioral luck is to take into consideration the compatibilist view, and more importantly the problem of weakness of will. Weakness of will, as it will be explained later, may justify the different ways of moral assessments. This justification articulated in legal terms can offer a novel strong explanation for justifying the rule of individuation of reactions in the system of criminal justice. Relying on analytical research the present article shows that the compatibilist view can justify the principle of inflicting punishment; justifying the principle of inflicting punishment, the problem of weakness of will can lay the foundations for accepting the differences among reactions.

As a subjective basis of all actions, happiness is one of the most important concepts in ethics, .However, according to Kant's ethics, this concept cannot be a foundation or motivation for general and absolute ethics. The aim of this paper is to investigate why happiness is ignored in Kant's ethics. It begins with the definition of happiness and then considers the critiques and the principles of Kant's ethics that are in contrast with seeking happiness .At last, the paper is concluded with some criticisms. The aim of ethics is setting categorical and unconditional rules which the experimental principle of happiness cannot provide. Emphasizing on the objectivity of the rules of man’s intellect, Kant’s formal ethics regards paying attention to experimental end and matter as harmful.. However, happiness is a subjective and personal issue whose provisions can neither be general nor do they necessarily result in happiness, because happiness is often provided by nature. The most important critique to this kind of ethics is denying the role of seeking happiness as a motive for moral action. Moral actions need either the support of God for its obligations and prohibitions or the consideration of personal happiness, both of which Kant's ethics lacks.

Iraq is announced as one of the first fifth countries which hold the most crude oil inventories and the first fifteenth world gas reserves. The ten-year-old plan of oil and gas fields development in this country which has been started in 2008, has experienced four of tenders between the years 2009 and 2012. Oil production of this country has reached 3.2 million barrels a day in 2012 and placed Iraq in the third place as a petroleum exporter before Iran. There are serious uncertainties about crude oil stocks and production in Iraq. Also, various statistics are issued by different sources. Critical challenges for Iraq in developing oil fields are: lack of export terminals, electricity shortage, lack of water for injecting oil fields, insecurity, restrictions wells and other top level equipment limitations, legal uncertainties, expert labor limitations, and insufficient financing. The effective presence of various Chinese companies in Iraq’s fields demonstrates special strategic attention of China to Iraq’s hydrocarbon resources for oncoming requirements of this country. This may lead to replacement of Iran’s oil with Iraq’s and change Chinese oil supply strategies. As a result, Iranian oil embargo may potentially maintain and expanded.

The study of oil and gas contracts require coherent theoretical framework that links different disciplines. Transaction cost economics present an interdisciplinary approach for analyzing contractual issues. Since 1995 three generations of buy-back contracts implemented in Iran. This study for analyzing opportunism, one of TCE behavioral assumptions, focused on the first generation contracts. Opportunism is interest seeking without considering principles and consciences that do not maximize common interest. The buy-back contract parties have different interests that are not aligned with each other. The contract is incomplete; there is asymmetry in information and investment structure, so opportunism is possible. Some forms of Shirking of obligations, enforcing to renegotiation and inflexibility under new circumstances in buy-back contract, are examples of ex-post opportunism. Because of the vulnerability of the parties due to their specific investment in the project, monitoring mechanisms in the buy-back contract is not able to prevent from opportunism. Incentives alignment is another solution for opportunistic behavior that occurred in test period, but not in cost minimization and using more efficient technologies.

There are two different views about the role of religion in human culture and civilization. Some scholars believe in the constructive and positive role of the religion; whereas, some contemporary religion philosophers such as Kicher (in his book: Life after faith) takes a skeptical and secularist perspective and argues that due to the diverse religious teachings, their conflicts and their controversial reports about"sublime percept"they certainly bear false. Therefore, the universal values which will rule human civilization and culture are secular values. After a brief report of the book, Alvin Plantinga, a famous, punctilious Christian philosopher, somehow criticizes it and then tries to defend it that we consider him unsuccessful. Allāme Tabātabā’i as a contemporary Muslim thinker first defines the nature of religion and then divides religions into the right and the wrong. He takes the view that accepts diversity only among Abrahamic religions which he considers as the right religions and believes that the spirit of them all is submission to God. He asserts that the controversy among religions is due to their perfection, quantity, and quality and it does not root in their nature. He argues that as the past culture of man is beholden to religion his future will also be a religious one due to constant values of human. The present study, tries to exactly review Kicher’s book based on-Alvin Plantinga’ report and then aims to criticize his ideas from the perspective of Allāme Tabātabā’i, through descriptive and library research.

Rationality is a distinguished feature of human being and a desirable characteristic. Apparently other-regarding and altruistic behaviors, also, seem to form salient aspects of human life. The immediate question, then, would be: is altruism rational? Assuming that altruism constitutes an essential part of a morally good life, further questions emerge: Is living a morally good life consistent with being rational? Is it possible to find a rational ground for ethics? Can one be genuinely altruistic? Is it possible to act morally and rationally, not considering one’s self-interests? If altruism can be rationally justified, do we need a specific model of rationality? This survey has been constructed around Thomas Nagel’s views on the above issues, their pros and cons, possible interpretations, various problems and ways out of them. However, before doing this I will address and clarify some general principles and presuppositions hidden under these issues. This will be done in the first chapter. The opponents of the possibility of (genuine) altruism and its rationality, sometimes called ‘egoists’, have formulated their views in different forms and defended them by various arguments. Knowing that I cannot fully investigate egoism, I will try to briefly explain these claims and arguments and subsequently evaluate them in the second chapter. This will set the scene for the study of Nagel who finds (genuine) altruism possible and rational. Based on his understanding of practical reason and the kind of perspective each person should have of oneself, Nagel defends the possibility and rationality of altruism. In his analysis of (human) act, in general, and moral act, in particular, Nagel gives way to reason, rather than desire. He parallels the form of reason and objective considerations regarding altruism with the form of timeless reason in prudence and considerations concerning longterm interests. Such reasons are 'objective' or 'agent-neutral' since they contain a kind of objective reference which does not rely on any specific person, reasons like "that acting would relieve someone's pain". If it is possible for an agent to be rationally motivated in prudence by considering long-term interests, it would also be possible for the agent to be rationally motivated in the case of altruistic considerations by taking an impersonal, external, perspective-less, or agent-neutral point of view amongst others who are as real as the person – otherwise, as Nagel claims, a kind of solipsism is unavoidable. From this position, he would not find any specific characterization placing him in a privileged point.

Investment is an inevitable factor in development. In this regard, the oil and gas industries have special sensitivity because of Iranian economic dependence on them and on the other hand, these resources should manage to insure the interests of the next generations. In oil industry Iran to supply the necessary assets has been using Buy Back Contracts. This article is to study the jurisprudence validity of such contracts through the applying the Ghoror Rule. To do so, at first this Rule has been discussed from the perspectives of the Islamic religious scholars then, the Buy Back Contracts and their purposes have been mentioned. At last the implications and results of such contracts and its comparison with the Ghoror Rule's results have been studied.