mohammad shokry

One of the most important issues in the field of epistemology of ethics is the possibility or impossibility of obtaining moral cognition. In this article, we examine moral beliefs that are propositions; it studies the possibility of being right and wrong of the propositions derived from real affairs or expressing desires, tendencies and expressing feelings, or even they are the kind of imperatives. The humen are often capable of doing moral action; While they often don't even have the ability to express or argue about it. Although people do not speak confidently about their moral cognition, they do moral action whether it would be right or wrong. In the first part of this article, people's confidence and intuition about moral cognition and action are discussed. In the second part of this study, moral cognitivism argues that moral propositions express a kind of cognition and can be really right or wrong, but on the other hand, there are some other philosophical currents in the field of ethics that put the possibility of moral cognition under the question. And these philosophical currents that are opposite to cognitivism are known as non-cognitivism and moral skepticism. According to non-cognitivists, moral imperatives and propositions are not beliefs about real affairs and do not have the ability to be right or wrong. Although skeptics accept that humen are supposed to have moral beliefs, they believe that these beliefs are completely unjustified. In this article, the above-mentioned issues are discussed.

The purpose of the author of this article is to express the course of development in the definition and concept of aesthetics (aesthetics), and its relationship with science, philosophy and art in the Enlightenment era, in order to determine the difference and commonality of their theoretical components. Using library tools and descriptive-analytical methods, this research reflects on and rereads the texts of Kant and Nietzsche as well as the works of their commentators, and finds the roots of modern aesthetics in Descartes' views and hissubjectivist foundations. In the philosophy of Descartes, man finds originality because he is a subject, that is, he becomes a subject as a reference of existence and truth, so beauty is also subject to human feeling and perception and will therefore become subjective. Kant consolidated the principles and foundations of Cartesian subjectivism, and the meaning of Cartesian subjectivism has had a significant impact on the emergence of main concepts in Kant's art and aesthetics. With his transcendental philosophy, Kant is the founder of the subjective approach in the experience of beauty and judgment of taste. According to Kant, beauty is that which creates pleasure, free from interest and profit, meaningless and universal, which is an aimless end, but Nietzsche does not accept this Kant's definition of beauty, Nietzsche ridicules Kant's separation between beauty and the realm of utility. He mentions pleasure and goodness as "beauty in itself", and calls it an empty word and says that beauty is based on a disinterested attitude, .......

The twentieth-century prominent political thinker, Hannah Arendt, has gone through a very different course from his master, Martin Heidegger, in presenting her viewpoints on the correlation between political action (praxis) and overcoming totalitarianism. Applying a phenomenological analysis of history, she surveys the human condition from the pre-Socratic era to now in order to illuminate this correlation. As a political existentialist, Arendt presumes that the privation of true political philosophy throughout the history of Western metaphysical tradition is the consequence of trivializing the necessity of action in general and praxis in particular compared to the centrality of speculation in post-Socratic tradition, especially Platonic school. According to Arendt, pre-Socratic Polis is the ideal political community, where the uniqueness of individuals -represented through their speech and action- is celebrated while being with "the others"; however, speculation in seclusion has become far more authentic than action in public after Socrates' trial. No need to mention Heidegger’s influential impact on Arendt's critical approach to Western metaphysical tradition; however, she emphasizes the disclosure of the actors’ “who” through action and speech in the public sphere, contrary to Heidegger’s disclosure of Dasein as “Aletheia” or the revelation of the truth. To phrase it, Arendt is switching over “being” to “appearance” which is manifested in action and speech in her thought. Her emphasis on man’s presence and his interaction with the others in the plurality of the public sphere to liberate from the crisis of twentieth-century totalitarianism and alienation stands in contrast to the extravagant egoism and solipsism of Heideggerian Dasein that have been recognized and criticized by Arendt herself. The one which is albeit known as being-in-the-world according to Arendt, but it is considered as inauthentic if being presented in the plurality of Mitsein (being-with), having an “Idle Talk” with them and consequently falling into everydayness. Therefore, Dasein prefers to remain an “ideal self” in isolation and seclusion according to Arendt.Arendt maintains that Heidegger's observation of Dasein as an "ideal self" is no way dissimilar to the post-Socratic man of speculation, who is engaged in noetic thinking in his privacy, the attitude that has diminished action in favor of reflection all through the Western metaphysical tradition. Mentioning the crisis of the twentieth-century totalitarianism in Nazi Germany, Stalinist Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, Arendt critically assumes that ontological egoism and solipsism have eliminated politics and successively prepared the ground for the rise of the mentioned crisis, whereas totalitarianism seeks atomized and disjointed societies. Applying a descriptive- analytic methodology, the present research attempts to compare Arendt's and Heidegger's standpoints towards the above concern and elucidates Arendt's criticism of Heidegger in clearing the crisis of totalitarianism. It also adverts Arendt's solution to exhaust the mentioned crisis, "love of the world", which creates the necessary impulsion and stimulus to overcome solipsism and triggers acting in public sphere, according to Arendt.

Kant considers the nature of rules of the taste to be interested, but at the same time believes that an objective basis can be found for the totality of these rulings in the power of judgment. First, given the coexistence of subjective and intersubjective elements in Kant's theory of interest, what relation does he establish between the subjective and the intersubjective judgments of taste? To answer this question, in the first part, while examining the logical features of the aesthetical sentence, we show that this sentence, in his view, is an aesthetic sentence that is issued in complete freedom and autonomy of the subject and by the other has a certain kind of general validity in its content. This kind of general validity, since it is purely based on transcendental structures which are common among all judgmental subjects, also has an intersubjective aspect, which Kant calls the names of subjective generality, aesthetic generality, and universal validity.  Second, how does Kant strike a relation between the subjective and the intersubjective? To answer this question, in the second part, we argue that Kant, although he believes in the subjectivity of the judgment of taste, considers this subjectivity to be of a special kind, which is the other aspect of intersubjectivity. For this purpose, we first try to explain the meaning of the subjectivity of the judgment of interest, and then to clarify the intersubjective aspect of this meaning. Finally, we show that Kant, based on the intersubjective validity he finds in the judgment of interest, considers the faculty of interest as a capacity for empathy between subjects and to bring them out of isolation.

Aesthetics of everyday life is one of the branches of aesthetic knowledge. Until the 20th century, classical aesthetics focused on the subject of visual arts and paid less attention to the formation of fine arts in the context of human and nature’s daily life experience. During the last few decades, a movement emerged that, by avoiding that one-sided art-oriented approach, tried to create a close link between the experience of fine arts and the experience of other areas of daily life. This led to the emergence of a new field of study called the aesthetics of everyday life. Pragmatist philosopher John Dewey explained his views on the concept of aesthetic experience of everyday life in the book Art as Experience. The main purpose of the article is to find out what is the beauty of everyday life based on John Dewey’s views. Therefore, after examining various concepts and theories about the aesthetics of everyday life, two analytical examples of the aesthetics of everyday life in the architectural art of traditional Iranian houses (Mollabashi House of Isfahan) and the art of poetry (Sohrab Sepehri) are examined. The result is that the aesthetics of everyday life is the “aesthetics of presence” which, when confronted with anything, both beautiful and ugly, causes a change in the type of human presence in the new global life with a haptic pattern. The compilation of this article is in the form of taking samples from library sources and reliable internet sites, and the research method is descriptive-analytical.

abstract Undubtly, One of the most influential movements in the world today is hermeneutics. This approach has been changed from the beginning to the present, due to the advent of various thinkers. Gadamer is the most intelligent and most radical advocate of a bunch of heroines, from which it is referred to as philosophical hermeneutics.in the other side, derrida Represents a stream of metaphysics challenging the western presence of the metaphysics, which does not trust the hermeneutics and the centrality of the understanding it derives from. This article will take a brief look at the history of hermeneutics, while examining the paradigms of thought of the two thinkers in question, focusing on the famous Gadamer and Derrida debate at the Goethe-Institut de Paris, using descriptive-analytic methods and using library and Internet resources, challenge The most important lies in the debate. The main question of the paper is as follows: The Challenge between "Understanding" and "Other" How is this debate analyzed? Such readings can serve as methodological guides to other epistemic areas in order to develop unconventional reading approaches.

The logical positivism was the name of radical empiricism that formed in Viena by inspiration of persons like Hume,Russell , Witgenstein and others in 1920 and then entered into England by Ayer via his The language,True and Logic.The main claim of this philosophical movement is to exclude metaphysics as a kind of knowledge.Spokesmans and agents of this way of thinking by accepting Hume’s division of propositions into Analytic and synthetical,are believed that not only metaphysics but theology and morals can not be counted as scientific mental actions. The writer of logical positivism tried by means of translation of some articles represents and critics its main doctrins like verifiability.

The notion of space is one of the most interesting and attractive topics in Merleau-Ponty̕ s phenomenology of perception. Unlike Husserl who looks for certain facts in the field of pure consciousness, i.e., in the field devoid of natural assumptions such as time and place, but more like Heidegger’s idea of Being- in- the- world as the essential state of human beings; Merleau-Ponty believes that cognition of space is an a priori condition for our knowledge of objects and events. In addition, through more reflection on the psycho-physiological findings in contemporary psychology, Merleau-Ponty argues that our body is the ground or horizon by which objects take spatial features, and therefore it is the source of a dual relation between the subject and the world. He reiterates the point that all of our experiences followed by creation of new spatial levels that formed successively, and that our experiences are the result of the formation of new spatial levels of embodiment subject. A significant result of this view is that the individual subject is a historical one whose moments are formed by successive experiences in which the body’s spatial levels are aggregated to form a more complete special level compared with the previous ones.

In his ontological argument from the fifth Meditation، Descartes demonstrates God''s existence based his rationalistic method and theory of innate ideas. He believes we cannot conceive that God has all perfections while excluding existence from him. God، as our innate ideas denotes it، is the infinite perfection، and such essence is necessarily existent. Although، for Descartes، there is no real distinction between existence and essence in beings، and he accepts we can infer existence from essence، he believes that the kind of existence belonging to every essence is different from the other. This means we can infer Contingent Being from finite essence and Necessary Being (God) from the supreme and infinite essence.