جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "سنت" در نشریات گروه "علوم انسانی"

The relationship between tradition and modernity significantly affects society, culture and development discoursee. This research examines the three critical views of tradition as imitation, transmission and transformation, and along with the analysis of their influencing components, it obtains the coordinates of development in effective connection with historical achievements. The main question and goal of this research is the coordinates of Iran's economic development in the era of globalization according to the development plan. Development is a multi-dimensional process that has evolved over time with conceptual challenges and has undergone various dimensions to complete the word. One of its important dimensions is attention to social justice in the framew-agricultural private sector in Iran, which is less industrial and traditional. Dispersion and decentralization of industries to achieve lower income inequality between provinces will create a level of loss, but less loss than in Western countries. Large wage variations explained by economic geography can cause significant internal migration, beyond what is seen in Western countries. In fact, significant internal migration has been observed in Iran in recent years. In fact, the coordinates of Iran's economic development according to the development plan can be pointed out in components such as the lack of balance, disregard for regional and global requirements, the dominance of political and non-scientific views on development, and the lack of long-term strength in the plans.

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of the Islamic Revolution of Iran on the evolution of Daryoush Shayegan's understanding of the West. In this context, the concept of tradition and modernity in Shayegan's thought after the Islamic Revolution of Iran was analyzed based on a combination of Carl Gustav Jung's collective psychoanalysis and Martin Heidegger's hermeneutic theory, which served as the foundation for reviving Eastern spirituality against the dominance of modernity over non-European cultures. The most important issue for Shayegan was the confrontation of the Iranian people with the challenge of tradition and modernity. The primary research question is: What effect did the occurrence of the Islamic Revolution have on Shayegan's Western studies? The hypothesis is that although Shayegan at one point advocated a return to tradition and Eastern identity and criticized modern identity and modernity, even being in strong opposition to technology and modernity, after the Islamic Revolution and witnessing its transformations, he adopted a critical approach to modernity and the West. Shayegan after the revolution underwent significant changes compared to Shayegan before the revolution. He, influenced by Heidegger, was a critic of the West, believing that the West had separated from noumenon (existence) and focused on the phenomenon (appearance), which in Shayegan's narrative meant distancing from truth and being limited to the realm of appearances. However, in the 1990s, after distinguishing between religious and political revolutions, Shayegan arrived at the concept of fragmented identity and peaceful coexistence. This does not mean that Shayegan, having moved past the Islamic Revolution, abandoned spirituality. Rather, he believed, as Vattimo argued, that the fall of metaphysics would inevitably lead to the return of spirituality, and that the postmodern world would open up profound concerns for spirituality and the crisis of meaning for humanity.

The constitutional revolution began at the end of the Qajar era as a movement to overthrow the authoritarian system and establish democracy and reached its peak with the issuance of the constitutional decree. The approval of the first constitution and the formation of the National Assembly are among the key achievements of this revolution. Meanwhile, the role of scholars and intellectuals in providing the necessary grounds for the formation and advancement of this movement was very prominent. influential figures of this era was Sheikh Ahmed Torbati, known as Sultan al-Ulama. As one of the supporters of the constitution, after the victory of this movement, he published the newspaper "Ruh al-Quds" in TehranTradition and modernity, which are essentially in conflict with each other, caused the institution of the clergy to be affected by this conflict. The clergy, which had a religious and religious role until then, faced new issues and challenges that had a non-religious aspect and targeted the principle of religion and traditional beliefs. This conflict intensified with the arrival of modernity and the inability of Iranians to respond appropriately to new crises. The Constitutional Revolution is considered as the turning point of Iran's entry into this period of conflict between modernity and tradition, which led to the creation of deep divisions among political forces, including the clergy. T. The results show that this newspaper, by using religious language and political literature, was able to provide social and intellectual grounds for dealing with tyranny and establishing constitutionalism

Understanding the nature of traditional art over the last century has been the focus of many thinkers and researchers, including traditionalists. Their studies have led to various theories on the philosophy and wisdom of sublime art. Titus Burckhardt, one such traditionalist, has examined both the nature and specific aspects of traditional art through a traditionalist approach rooted in religious and mystical perspectives. From Burckhardt’s point of view, for art to be considered "traditional," its subject matter must originate from a spiritual truth, and its form must also reflect spiritual principles. In this research, an effort has been made to analyze the concept of the "face" in traditional art, specifically through the lens of Burckhardt’s thought. This study seeks to answer the question: according to Burckhardt, what themes and concepts are embodied in the form of artistic tradition? A descriptive-analytical method was used for this investigation, with documentary and library research forming the basis of analysis. The findings reveal that the depiction of the face in traditional art, like other representations of existence, serves as a manifestation of traditional truths, expressed visually with distinct characteristics.

The logic of exploring social laws in the production of Islamic humanitiesStudying social laws and knowing their causes, agents and effects has an irreplaceable role in the production of Islamic humanities and social sciences. Undoubtedly, the achievement of such laws is based on a special method and logic, which is interpreted as the logic of discovery of social laws. The logic of discovery, as a comprehensive method, in addition to the method (process, rules, tools and techniques), also deals with the basics of understanding divine traditions.The present article deals with some important methods to understanding the social laws from Quran and traditions as a compilation from the library method and in terms of nature, from the rational-analytical method. the findings of this research,that is, we can mention the rational and narrative methods in understanding social lows. However, due to the complexity of the divine laws and the explanations of rational and narrative methods, it is necessary to apply a logical interpretation and convergence. This comprehensive logic, in addition to validity and acceptability, has the ability to understand and deduce all levels of divine laws.

Political conflicts in contemporary Iran can largely be explained by the confrontation between tradition and modernity. To address this dichotomy, Iranian thinkers have proposed various solutions. Some fully embrace modernity while rejecting tradition entirely. Conversely, others defend tradition and adopt a hostile stance toward all aspects of modernity. A third group advocates for a middle ground, suggesting a synthesis that preserves the positive elements of both tradition and modernity while discarding their negative aspects. Despite their many differences, traditionalists such as Ahmad Fardid, Reza Davari Ardakani (in his early intellectual period), and Seyyed Hossein Nasr all reject modernity entirely in favor of tradition. They argue that the Renaissance, seen as the origin of modernity, represents a fundamental deviation from the unity of human. According to these thinkers, the modern human has elevated autonomous reason as their ultimate authority, abandoning religion as a profound source of wisdom and knowledge. In this sense, traditionalists prioritize intuitive knowledge over acquired knowledge, which they see as a product of the Modern age. They propose an epistemology that places revelation and contemplation above reason and experience, replacing modern epistemological frameworks with their preferred epistemology. The present study tried to examine the epistemological foundations of Iranian traditionalists, specifically Ahmad Fardid, Reza Davari Ardakani, and Seyyed Hossein Nasr. It seems that their defense of tradition in its entirety and their outright rejection of modernity are rooted in specific epistemological principles. These foundational ideas shape their stance on the interplay between tradition and modernity. In this respect, this study aimed to examine the epistemological foundations of Iranian traditionalists, as well as their broader implications. First, the analysis intended to clarify the theory of knowledge serving as the basis for traditionalist perspectives and conclusions. Second, it went on to see how the very theory of knowledge influences the confrontation between tradition and modernity. The main research question is: What epistemological foundations underlie the traditionalists’ defense of tradition and their rejection of modernity?

Literature Review:

The literature on Iranian intellectuals, particularly traditionalists, has explored their ideas from various perspectives. However, it appears that much of this research focuses more on the opinions and outcomes of traditionalist thought rather than their underlying principles. In other words, Iranian scholars in the field of intellectual history have often overlooked or easily downplayed the foundational aspects of traditionalists, including their epistemologies. At best, these studies only touch briefly on the desirable epistemologies of Iranian traditionalists. In contrast, the current study delved deeper into the epistemological foundations of traditionalists, specifically Ahmad Fardid, Reza Davari Ardakani, and Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

The present study employed ratio decidendi as its method. The British liberal–conservative philosopher Michael Oakeshott used this method to interpret texts of political thought. Oakeshott argued that emphasizing only the opinions and conclusions of a thinker risks marginalizing other aspects of their work, likely leading to misinterpretation. He applied the method to interpret the works of Bentham and Hobbes. According to Oakeshott, some researchers view Bentham as a great critical thinker simply because of his philosophical and political predictions (i.e., his opinions and conclusions). As a result, they mistakenly portray him as a thinker going against his time. Similarly, in the case of Hobbes, some scholars focus exclusively on his view of human nature as inherently selfish, treating it as the premise of his political conclusions. However, Oakeshott, using the method of ratio decidendi, contended that Bentham was firmly a product of his era, with no groundbreaking innovations in his principles. Regarding Hobbes, Oakeshott argued that he was a radical and distinctive philosopher of his time. The notion of inherent selfishness in human nature, often attributed as Hobbes’s starting premise, was, in fact, a conclusion derived from nominalism and solipsism.

Using this method, instead of focusing on the opinions and results of the traditionalists, we examine their foundations particularly epistemology. Therefore, our question will be, on what epistemological basis do traditionalists - like Farid, Davari Ardakani and Nasr - oppose modernity and what is the consequence of this basis in solving the equation of tradition and modernity.Broadly speaking, there are two main theories of knowledge: the theory of correspondence and the theory of coherence. According to the theory of correspondence, truth is determined by its alignment with raw and fixed data—what is commonly referred to as facts. In contrast, the theory of coherence holds that truth is established when the facts belong to a larger system. Advocates of the theory of coherence emphasize a distinction between the concepts of whole and collection, arguing that reality should be understood as an integrated whole rather than as a mere collection of parts.

The analysis of the works of Iranian traditionalists revealed that their epistemology aligns closely with the theory of coherence. They perceive phenomena, including tradition and modernity, as integrated wholes rather than as mere collections of parts. Based on this perspective, it can be argued that if tradition is regarded as a fixed whole, it will be impossible to combine tradition and modernity. However, if tradition is understood as a collection—where parts can be added or removed—the possibility of combining tradition and modernity emerges to some extent. The traditionalists in question view both tradition and modernity as fixed, unchangeable wholes. Consequently, they advocate for the complete rejection of modernity in favor of fully restoring tradition. Nevertheless, unlike Fardid and Davari Ardakani, Nasr offers a limited, albeit conditional, opportunity to combine tradition and modernity.

The importance of writing and recording is to the extent that the Holy Qur'an has given the greatest warning to the low-sellers and those who waste people's rights, and has warned all believers against the rights of people. Haq al-Naas is considered an unforgivable sin and he explicitly mentioned it in the verses of Surah Mutafifin. In verse 282 of Surah Al-Baqarah, under the greatest verse of the Holy Qur'an, he clearly mentioned this importance. In the mentioned verse, the importance and necessity of not violating people's rights has been mentioned and to prevent this from happening, it has been suggested to write down and register transactions and debts.This research is of two types; First, he has established a link between Surah Mutafifin and verse 282 of Surah Al-Baqarah, then he has shown the importance of recording and scribes in jurisprudence.

As a theoretical and methodological tool, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) provides insight into the authors' worldviews and how they utilize language to convey a deep, multifaceted understanding of their world. This research employs the CDA approach as advocated by Fairclough (2000) to analyze the novel Ahle Ghargh by MoniroRavanipour, out of various CDA methods. At the level of description, the high frequency of words, collocations, sentence fragments, swear words, color words, pronouns and passivization, binary oppositions, and sentential moods, have been interpretated in terms of the depletion of native traditions of their meaning and the collapse of social conventions based on native customs, which have the highest conceptual and empirical affinity with the discourse of "returning to oneself", in the intertextuality and historical context. At the level of explanation, the author has invested considerable effort to portray modernity as inappropriate by showing the ravages of modernity that have drained the native societies of meaning as well as the lack of power to oppose this dominance. Moreover, the author has taken a valid critical position by explaining hegemony in various aspects of the discourse. As a result, at the level of explanation, one can witness the hegemony of modernity at the expense of tradition.

This article delves into the critical perspective of the Japanese writer and intellectual, Natsume Sōseki, on the modernization of Japanese society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Focused on two key works, "The Civilization of Modern-day Japan" and the novel "Kokoro," this analysis aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of Sōseki's views. "The Civilization of Modern-day Japan" offers theoretical discussions on modernization without concrete examples, while "Kokoro" portrays the consequences of modernization on Japanese lives through objective and story-driven events. Together, these works present Sōseki's nuanced reflections on the interplay between modernity and tradition. Sōseki's overall pessimism towards modernity emerges as he contends that it has not alleviated but intensified human suffering. Additionally, he characterizes Japan's modernity as an imported, borrowed, non-indigenous, and unnatural phenomenon. This rapid infusion of foreign modernity has reshaped societal structures, leading to materialism, alienation, pessimism, isolation, mistrust, selfishness, despair, and guilt within Japanese society. Sōseki's dual examination of modernity in both theoretical and practical terms provides a comprehensive critique of the societal transformations during his era, encapsulating a profound skepticism towards the impacts of modernization on the human experience. In essence, Sōseki's works serve as insightful reflections on the challenges posed by modernity, highlighting its unsettling consequences on the fabric of Japanese society during a transformative period in history.

The role of tradition in explaining the divine book does not appear only in the interpretation and explanation of the apparent meanings of the verses, but sometimes it is in the direction of generalizing and expanding the meanings of the divine verses. This generalization and development can be followed in different forms and in the framework of the rules and methods of conventional expression with custom and reason, and through this we can understand the connection between the apparent meanings of the verses and the concepts developed in the tradition and a clear understanding of the tradition's method in the application of the Qur'an. Expansion in the semantic range of Qur'anic words and contents is possible only when considering the capacity of words to include unfamiliar examples, although development through attribution is sometimes accompanied by claims of the Shari'a using the permissible method of attribution.The abstraction of verses from the characteristics and conditions of the space of revelation, as well as the extraction of general rules and comprehensive messages from verses, are other methods in which the development process has been carried out. The intention and will of different concepts at the same time, faces challenges and reflections. Acceptance of different meanings is sometimes possible in terms of multiple literary structures, which are reflected in one sentence. However, the non-employment of this method of expression by custom prevents the acceptance of such a method in order to develop the contents of the divine book from another point of view.

Identity is a psychological necessity for humans and a prerequisite for any social life. Without a framework to define identity, individuals would become indistinguishable from one another, and none could meaningfully connect with others. Trust in one's environment is a vital component of social life, forming the basis of relationships. In its absence, identity conflicts and differences in the behavior of men and women, particularly during the transition from tradition to modernity, emerge. Social trust thus plays a significant role in human interactions, ranging from the micro level (family) to the macro level (society). This article aims to analyze and sociologically explain the factors influencing identity conflict using Anthony Giddens' theory. It examines the characters in the novel End of the Day by Afghan author Mohammad Hossein Mohammadi through a descriptive-analytical method. Giddens argues that to understand identity conflicts, one must first grasp the concept of tradition and its influence on identity structures, followed by an analysis of identity in the modern world. Tradition serves as a pre-established framework for shaping individuals' identities, and each person experiences a phenomenon of rupture in their quest for a new identity in the modern world. For the new generation of Afghan women, despite the limitations of the traditional world, this conflict and rupture have caused identity distress. However, compared to men, these women actively pursue modernity, even as they contend with the conservative restraints imposed by traditional women.

One of the social traditions mentioned in the Holy Quran is the "tradition of Tadafo". This tradition is one of the general divine traditions that is always in progress not only among humans but also among all parts of the universe, such as planets and animals, and its achievement is the creation of balance and continuity in life; in such a way that if this tradition did not exist, life would be disrupted and creatures would not be able to continue their lives. Despite the importance and role that the "tradition of Tadafo" plays in the world, this tradition is less known than other traditions, and sometimes Islamic scholars consider this tradition to be the same as more general traditions such as the tradition of the victory of truth over falsehood or the tradition of the rise and fall of nations and other similar traditions, and examine the Quranic verses containing this tradition under the same general traditions; while the tradition of Tadafo, while closely related to other traditions, is itself considered a separate tradition that has been established in line with the balance and equilibrium of the world system. Therefore, this article attempts to examining the tradition of Tadafo in terms of lexical and terminology and then explain this quranic concept and introduce its types using a descriptive-analytical method, and explain the relationship of this tradition with other similar traditions. The results of this research indicate that in two verses of the Holy Quran, the tradition of Tadafo is explicitly and directly referred to, and both of these verses try to expressing the tradition of human Tadafo. This tradition, which can be examined at two levels of Conversational Tadafo and military Tadafo, has its own special relationship with each of the similar traditions, in such a way that it is considered as the basis and foundation for some traditions and as the achievement and result for others. Sometimes the tradition of Tadafo acts as a tool or process through which some traditions are realized.

One of the most important issues facing today's society is the relationship between tradition and modernity. The relationship between tradition and modernity is one of the important issues of today's society, which is also reflected in fiction.. In the course of modernization, many societies have undergone transformation and transformation of social, cultural structures and even roles. One of the issues of modernity, according to Giddens' view, is change and transformation, and it is based on the critique of the past and the present as much as it critiques itself. Il Bakhtiari society, as a part of the structure of Iranian society, has a completely traditional structure that has undergone growth and transformation in recent years, so that these changes in different family, clan and clan structures, relationships between social roles, customs and traditions And in general, it has shown itself in all cultural elements. In this research, the author is trying to analyze and critique the sociological works of Mohammad Bahman Bigie based on the perspective of Anthony Giddens in a descriptive-analytical way. Anthony Giddens believes that traditions continue to exist in any society, even modern society. The results of the research indicate that the traditions have a significant presence in Bahman Begi's works and have not disappeared and even have guardians who watch over and protect them. According to Giddens, these customs and traditions are held collectively and in a group, in such a way that they have an inseparable connection with the identity of the people of the tribe and are repeated in various ways.

The novel includes the events of many eventful periods of Iran's contemporary history, which are reported with the focus of Tuba's life. The events of the novel take place in the context of political developments from the threshold of the constitutional movement to the last decades of Pahlavi II's rule and the height ofviolent struggles. During it, Parsipour depicts the life of several generations, centered on the life of Tuba. From this perspective, the novel Tuba and the meaning of the night is the story of the life and inner conflicts of the Iranian man, who, in addition to living in the context of political and social conflicts, is involved in the turmoil and psychological conflicts arising from the wave of modernity within himself.

This article has been prepared in an analytical-descriptive method, using library resources and using scientifically valid sources.

The findings of the research confirm that the confrontation between tradition and modernity has been going on from the threshold of constitutionalism to the occurrence of the revolution in various fields of Iranian society. In addition to politics and governance, this confrontation has transformed family and social relations.

The results of this research show that at any point in time from the constitutional era to this point, on the one hand, we can witness the progress of modernity in the individual, social, and political spheres, and on the other hand, the resistance of traditional standards and standards against the relentless wave of modernity.

The concepts of tradition and modernity are among the issues that have created significant challenges in the intellectual frameworks of thinkers concerning civilization and governance in contemporary times. Accordingly, the aim of this research was to examine Imam Khomeini's management approach in relation to tradition and modernity and their role in civilization building. This research is development-oriented and employs a mixed methodology. In the qualitative section, the research utilized a grounded theory approach. By employing this approach, which involved focusing on words, analysis, description, clarification, and interpretation of supporting theories and empirical texts, data was collected. Additionally, the qualitative sample comprised academic experts, and through chain sampling, the interviews reached theoretical saturation. Based on the Strauss and Corbin (1997) model, the main categories and research factors were identified. To evaluate the adequacy of the research, interpretive research evaluation indicators were used. Through review and validation by participating members in the validation process, the findings of the study were deemed to have the necessary credibility and trustworthiness. The results of the quantitative data also confirmed the significance of all categories in the explanatory model. Overall, the findings indicate that Imam Khomeini's management approach is effective in the civilization-building of the Islamic world.

The years 1919 to 1929 in Afghanistan witnessed a clash between deep-rooted traditions and the alluring, yet disturbing forces of modernity. The developments that took place in the West under the name of modernity in different areas of the life left significant consequences on other parts of the world and Afghanistan was also affected by the scope of these waves in different periods. The deep roots of traditions in Afghanistan and the senselessness of new developments have led to the confrontation of modern values ​​with long-standing and deep-rooted traditions in the uneven cultural context of Afghan society. The penetration of modernity into Afghanistan, which took place through political and cultural elites, commercial and cultural exchange with the West, brought complex and numerous consequences. In a country with a rich cultural background and deep-rooted traditions, this confrontation has been accompanied by challenges and contradictions that have manifested in various political, social, economic and cultural fields.The central values ​​of modernity, such as rationality, individualism, secularism are against the traditional values ​​of the Afghan society, traditions based on religion, ethnicity, collectivism and obedience to hierarchical structures. This conflict has led to tensions and resistances against the developments of modernity, especially among the religious and traditional strata of the society.

Research question: 

What are the results of the dialectic of tradition and modernity in Afghanistan's political thought and what currents have emerged around it?Research hypothesis: The introduction and implementation of modern political thought in Afghanistan has not been able to be effectively integrated with existing traditional values and practices. This lack of integration has created a sharp gap between the modernist and traditionalist segments of Afghan society and has prevented the development of a coherent and sustainable political model.

Methodology and theoretical framework: 

Qualitative method and a descriptive-analytical approach are used in this article. The data analysis has been conducted using Quentin Skinner's hermeneutic method.

The period of Amanullah Khan's rule (1929-1919) in Afghanistan witnessed a deep confrontation between tradition and modernity. Amanullah Khan, who was influenced by the modernist ideas of the West, started extensive reforms in various fields. The approval of the constitution, separation of powers, and attention to education, press freedom and women's rights are among the important achievements of this period. Reforms in Afghanistan faced serious challenges due to several factors, including neglect of national and religious values, obvious imitation of Western models, focus on superficial improvements and acceleration in the implementation of changes.Ignoring the deeply rooted national and religious values ​​of the society created a deep gap between the people and the reform programs. Many of the proposed changes were seen as a threat to tradition and angered the masses and conservative factions. Attempting to modernize only with inspiration from western models, without considering the unique cultural and social context of Afghanistan, created a sense of alienation and resistance among the people. This uncritical imitation turned the reforms into external impositions and not internal developments that the people would consider as their own.Focusing too much on the appearances of progress, such as modern infrastructure and Western institutions, was not enough without bringing about deeper changes at the intellectual and cultural level. This superficial approach cannot communicate with people’s real needs and values ​​and involve them meaningfully.The high speed of implementation of reforms, regardless of traditional values ​​and beliefs, aroused the conservative forces. The lack of gradual transition and consensus building led to significant backsliding and social unrest. The lack of constructive and scientific dialogue between modernists and traditionalists fueled the escalation of tensions and conflicts. Finally, this confrontation led to the coup of Habibullah Kalkani and the overthrow of Amanullah Khan. With the closure of the constitutional case, Afghanistan once again fell into the abyss of traditionalism and isolation. This retreat demonstrated the difficulty of reconciling rapid modernization with deeply rooted traditions and left Afghanistan at a crossroads.

The research findings show that there was no effective intellectual debate between traditionalists and intellectuals during this period. The modernists presented their political thoughts without constructive dialogue and debate with traditionalists. The dominant view between these currents was hostile, and as a result, the internal model was not formed and the Afghan society remained in two parts, the traditionalists and the modernist. In Afghanistan, unlike countries in the region such as Iran and Türkiye, constitutionalism and modernism were not in the form of a comprehensive social thought, but rather as a topic of discussion in small intellectual groups that did not go beyond the circle of the court and courtiers and did not penetrate among the elites of the society. The conflict between tradition and modernity played a major role in the failure of modernism in this period. Since the modernists sought to create rapid socio-cultural and political changes and failed to transform the idea of constitutionalism into a social discourse, the deep-rooted traditions of the Afghan society resisted such sudden changes. The lack of deep intellectual debate between the proponents of tradition and modernists of the Hegelian dialectic type and even the dialogue and debate based on the Habermasian dialectic caused the failure of the constitutionalism process in this period. The type of confrontation between tradition and modernity in this era was superficial, hostile and antagonistic and its violent result not only led to the failure of constitutionalism and Amani's reforms, rather it led to the failure of his government and as a result, the case of modernists and constitutionalists was closed in the country for a long time.

Hadith, after the Qurʾān, is the most significant source of religious knowledge, accessible only through single and recurrent narrations. Recurrent narrations and single narrations accompanied by definitive evidence are considered valid in all areas of religion without dispute. However, the validity of single narrations without definitive evidence in interpretation is contentious. Sheikh Mufid, Sheikh Tusi, and Tabataba'i do not consider single narrations in the domains of beliefs, interpretation, and history to be valid. The main question of this research is whether, from Sabzevari's perspective, single narrations without definitive evidence are authoritative in interpretation. Sabzevari considers referring to reliable and trustworthy narrations as essential to the faith and believes that the most important reason for the validity of single narrations is the practice of rational people. He holds that reliable narrations are valid everywhere, with no distinction between secondary rulings, interpretation, history, and beliefs. According to the author, this claim is not well-founded, and single narrations are not valid in interpretation. However, referring to them as a current scientific method and as a means of investigating evidence and achieving common knowledge is necessary. The research method is descriptive-analytical and aims to examine and investigate the validity and status of single narrations in the interpretation of Mawāhib al-Raḥmān.

Examining gender stereotypes in traditional societies, in addition to highlighting the inequalities between women and men in a society, leads to the explanation of the limitations created by the rule of traditions and misconceptions about how women behave in the family and the society. Culture fuels gender stereotypes more than anything else. In this regard, culture creates a gender gap and gives men the main rights and special privileges. In the novel Ayam Meah, Kolit al-Khouri openly criticizes the gender stereotypes of the Syrian society, makes women's problems the main focus of her struggles, and fights against traditional beliefs arising from gender. This article seeks to investigate the mentioned story based on gender stereotypes. By analyzing the most important concepts in the field of gender and using the descriptive-analytical method, the study represents the conflict and confrontation of false and traditional beliefs about women with new concepts and the foundations of modernity. The question to answer is how has Al Khouri actively criticizes the traditional beliefs of Arab culture and proves the power of women in recovering their human identity? Criticisms on the wrong traditional beliefs, the sufferings of women in eastern societies, the necessity of women's self-awareness in a gender unequal environment, snd the conflict between traditional and modern women's intellectual foundations are the most important topics that Al-Khouri has raised in her novel. At the end of the novel, it can be concluded that eastern societies suffer from restrictive gender stereotypes. In such a situation, it is necessary for women to gain self-awareness and stay away from gender perspectives.

The method of this research is descriptive and analytical. First, we extracted the data from the target book and then edited them and wrote the content in a descriptive and analytical way. Cultural criticism is a nascent criticism that is the result of the progress of various critical sciences and is influenced by the foundations of other new critical schools such as modern historicism, anthropology, sociology of gender discourse, and women's criticism or the feminist movement. It needs to take advantage of the achievements of sociology, history, and systematic methods along with the methods of literary criticism. Although cultural criticism alone is not a regular method to examine literary texts, by using other schools of criticism, it analyzes the relationship between literary texts and the cultural structures of a society. It also examines the literary text in the field of intellectual and cultural infrastructures hidden in the underlying context. The revision of literature from a feminist point of view is necessary due to the change of gender roles and the question of gender stereotypes and stereotypical thoughts about men and women in the last century. One of the main concepts built from cultural beliefs in traditional societies is gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes represent common beliefs about how people act in the family and society. It also determines duties in their various personal and social relationships, thus creating many restrictions for people, especially women, and preventing them from achieving many goals. They are deprived of their natural rights. Literature clearly depicts the role of gender distinctions in women's lives. Literature, as an integral part of the cultural context of the society with a wide range of audiences, is one of the most important fields of cultural studies, which can be traced and criticized by analyzing its literary and cultural works and productions as well as the cultural beliefs and traditions that govern the society. According to cultural critics, culture is a process and construct rather than a fixed definition. It is an entity formed by the interaction of gender, race, ethnicity, social class, and economic and similar factors. Gruthers (1995) defines culture as "an organized set of normative values that governs common behavior among members of a certain group or society, and social structure as an organized set of social relations that members of a society or group have in various ways”. It describes how they get involved. Cultural structure can also be defined as a set of normative values that govern behavior and are common among people of a certain community or group. The present research seeks to investigate the story Days of Friendship by using the descriptive-analytical method and the most important foundations of cultural criticism in the area of patriarchal discourse and gender inequality. This story of AlKhouri is a field for girls to fight against the traditional patriarchal beliefs of the Syrian society, which creates a conflict between the old generation and the young generation of the society. The publication time of this novel (1959) is related to the years after the Second World War and the era of colonialism, war and internal conflicts in Arab countries, more importantly, the conflict between modernity and tradition, which is related to the vast feminist movements in the world.

The main area of the contrast between tradition and modernity in the novel Ayam Meah (Days of Togetherness) by Kolit al-Khouri is the social beliefs and habits and sexism of the Arab society in relation to the behavior and activities of the women in the society. Al-Khouri’s frank criticism of the intellectual and cultural atmosphere of the Arab society and the traditional foundations existing in its different layers regarding women and the unequal patterns of the patriarchal system in eastern societies, especially Syria, is very clear. He tries to point out that, in order to judge women and define their field of action, one should not rely on inherited beliefs in the society, and gender is not the focal point of women's identity at all; but rather, women's behavior, actions, attitude and way of thinking are their identity makers in different eras (Khamsa, 1383). Women's education, their employment and social and cultural activities and the redefinition of emotional relationships between boys and girls before marriage are the most important areas criticized by Kolit al-Khouri in the mentioned novel.

By openly criticizing the sexist and incorrect beliefs of Arab societies about women, restricting their freedom of action in individual and social life, and challenging the outdated and inherited gender stereotypes of the culture of these societies, Al-Khouri's story shakes the logic of women's inferiority within the family and the society. Al- Khouri shows how women fight and acquire different skills in their personal and social life to be able to adhere to their dignity and values along with freedom and independence. This is while many mental and psychological injuries may threaten them. Al-Khouri has strongly opposed the centralization of gender and its construction principles in the judgment of women, and she has depicted women as an independent and successful identity. Al-Khouri represents the thoughts and opinions of different characters by using the dialogue technique and representing the discourse of different characters in the story. Reem's conversation (libertarian and radical woman) with her grandmother (traditional and passive woman), Reem's conversation with Nadia (moderate and intellectual woman), Reem's conversation with Ziad (semi-traditional man) and his occasional conflicts with his uncle (traditional man) show the attractiveness and dynamics of the story. It has become a manifestation of conflicting opinions and thoughts within the story. The story depicts girls' strong desire and effort to accompany the basics of modernity in several different fields. By naming different characters in the story and showing how traditional or modern tendencies are, Kolit al-Khouri shows the different layers of society fight to prove or negate certain values and behavioral patterns. In the meantime, showing the faces of women and girls who are completely stagnant and passive in the shadow of the society's patriarchal culture is much more painful for the audience. Al-Khouri calls women to fight against the limiting beliefs ruling the society and to restore the independent identity of women. The remarkable point is the contrast of two views; one is a submissive woman with a patriarchal discourse and the other is a woman with an independent thinking and cultural thought. The difference between these two tendencies is well displayed in this story and shows the extent of women's limitations and identity crisis.

Leftist modernism was experienced during the government of the People's Democratic Party (1978-1992) in Afghanistan. The leftist modernism had special characteristics during the ruling period of the People's Democratic Party.This model of modernism was influenced by Soviet models and relied on authoritarian policies and was violently implemented in Afghanistan. The government of the People's Democratic Party, especially the People's Party government, wanted to implement reforms quickly and not gradually. Another characteristic of left modernism in Afghanistan was its ideological nature. For the People's Democratic Party, especially the People's party government, modernization was not a goal, but a means to dominate and consolidate the party government in economic, social and cultural fields; Land reforms, literacy and women's participation in political and social life were the most important reform programs of the People's Democratic Party government. Meanwhile, land reform can be considered the most important reform program of the leftist government. This type of modernism had some success in modernizing Afghanistan, but it could not achieve its main goals. Various factors have contributed to the failure of leftist modernism. Afghan tradition has been one of the important factors in the failure of leftist modernism.

Research question:

 How did the Afghan tradition play a role in the failure of leftist modernism?Research hypothesis: The essential contradiction of the indicators of the Afghan tradition with the leftist ideas and modernism caused its failure. Being Islamic, being ethnic, being historical, people's extreme sensitivity towards the private sphere, centrism, anti-government, and xenophobia can be counted among the important indicators of the Afghan tradition. The ideological de-traditionalization of left-wing modernism led to the promotion of tradition and intensified the conflict between tradition and modernity in Afghan society. With the onset of left modernism, the identity of the Afghan tradition was threatened. To defend its identity, tradition had to confront and was able to play different roles in the failure of this model of modernity.

Methodology and theoretical framework:

 In this article, the qualitative research method and the required data and information have been collected in documentary and library form.  The theoretical framework of this research is based on some basic modernization assumptions, such as the fact that development is an internal matter as well as a complex, gradual and evolutionary process, at the same time some of the ideas of late modernization including the possibility of interaction between tradition and modernity, the non-integral nature of development, and the necessity of paying attention to tradition in the development process.

The Afghan traditions were able to play complex and multiple roles in the failure of the main programs of left modernism, such as land reforms, fight against illiteracy and women's participation and political and social freedom. In the first step, the Afghan tradition, as a "unified" force, united its guards and followers against leftism and leftist modernism. Despite the differences that existed among the leftist opposition forces, they all agreed that the leftist economic, cultural and social reforms, which had a socialist and secular nature, are against Islamic and traditional values and resistance to them is a religious and patriotic matter. The Afghan tradition was the motive to fight against leftist modernism.Islam, as the main indicator and component of the Afghan tradition, aroused the feelings and motivations of the followers of this tradition, especially the villagers. They joined Islamic political parties (Jihadi Organizations) to fight against the leftist government and its reform programs. "Giving legitimacy" to the opposing forces of leftist modernism was another role of the Afghan tradition. The Sunni guardians were able to easily shape the mentality of the people among the people, especially in the villages, which were the main base of the Sunnah, in such a way that the people consider them to be right and the other party to be false.The Afghan tradition played its role in a complex way in the defeat of the reform programs of the People's Democratic Party government. On the one hand, it gave legitimacy, motivation and unity to the followers and guardians of tradition, but on the other hand, it took away the legitimacy of the Afghan People's Democratic Party. In other words, the function of the Afghani tradition was completely positive for its adherents but completely negative for the executors of leftist modernism. During the implementation of leftist reforms, there were behaviors and actions of the leaders that evoked the Afghan tradition. The agents and implementers of land reforms in the villages did actions that were considered disrespectful to religion by the people. They did not respect local clerics and landowners, while these people had a lot of social influence in the villages, which is the main base and origin of the tradition. In addition, they used leftist literature that was not understandable for the villagers. Bringing women to literacy courses in villages was also in conflict with rural culture.

The findings of this research show that Afghan tradition played a very important role in the failure of leftist modernism. Unity, motivation and legitimization were the three roles played by the Afghan tradition in the fight against leftist reforms. The nature and characteristics of Afghani tradition were in complete contrast with the nature and characteristics of left modernism. For its survival, the Afghan tradition used all its power and strength in the fight against leftism and finally won. The reform experience of the People's Democratic Party can be important for the pro-modernist forces in Afghanistan. The Afghan tradition has always been victorious against different approaches of modernism. Therefore, the revival of tradition will have a negative effect on the process of Afghanistan’s modernization.