جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "functional grammar" در نشریات گروه "ادبیات و زبان ها"

Halliday’s cohesive theory is one of the most important theories in functional linguistics, extensively used for the analysis of diverse literary texts. Based on this theory, logical, semantic, grammatical as well as formal relationships create cohesion in a text; hence, textual cohesion is classified into grammatical, lexical and connective subcategories. Grammatical cohesion includes reference, substitution and ellipsis while two subcategories of reiteration and collocation shapes lexical cohesion. Sa'di's verbal art is so enriched that meaning is not sacrificed for the sake of form, nor is form sacrificed for the sake of meaning. The poet's dexterity in the Persian literature's lexical and grammatical subtleties, and appropriate and skillful use of literary devices has made his poetry distinctive. In this descriptive-analytical research, adopting Halliday's theory of cohesion, one verse anecdote from the Būstān (The Fox and the Dervish) is selected to analyze the use of cohesive devices across three linguistic layers. Although cohesion in Sa'di's ghazals has been widely acknowledged, the reasons behind the cohesive strength of the verse anecdotes in the Būstān have not been thoroughly examined from a systemic functional perspective. Hence, the main research question was how lexical, grammatical and connective devices were employed in Sa'di's poetry, and which device was emphasized the most. The results corroborated the extensive and diverse use of cohesive devices in the verse anecdotes, in which the use of lexical cohesive devices is most outstanding. Among the grammatical devices, the poet puts more emphasis upon reference and ellipsis respectively. Furthermore, the poet's dexterous use of lexical cohesive devices, particularly repetition and its various forms on one hand, and collocation on the other hand, enhanced the beauty of the poet's expression, aiding its impact and facilitating better meaning transfer, so that form serves the purpose of meaning.  Among cohesive connective, additive and causative were the most prominent linguistic elements. This conclusion is in accordance with the characteristics of Sa'di's poetry as simplicity, lexical beauty, and fluency are outstanding features of this version of Iraqi style. Therefore, from a practical perspective, Halliday's theory is considered an appropriate framework for identifying cohesive devices in the prestigious poetic and prose texts of Persian literature, such as the Būstān. Based on the way cohesive devices are employed by various poets and literary figures, one may be able to understand, from the perspective of meaning, the organization of their thoughts and the originality of their ideas, and from the perspective of form, the unique verbal and rhetorical styles of each poet.

The functional linguistics is one of the main three approaches of theoretical linguistics in which function and meaning are considered simultaneously. The present article has chosen the Halliday’s functional Grammar (1994) as the framework. Halliday considers three main metafunctions for language and believes that the child in his/her language development process, gradually learns each of them and little by little assimilates his/her language to that of adults. In the present article, after a brief mention of the importance of stories in the process of language learning, the researchers will introduce the experiential metafunction of language and its effects on the process of language learning. For this purpose, the researchers semantically analyzed several stories of the A to D ages. The results of the research suggest that the verbs included in the studied story books have not been distributed according to linguistic and psychological principles. The irregular distribution of processes proves this very claim.

The complex system of Arabic syntax and orthography which is dependent on multi-layered semantics and derivatives has rendered Arabic translation a difficult task. Meanwhile, translation into Arabic, due to aesthetic features of the Arabic language concerning morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics that underpin different semantic functions in deep and surface structures, is more difficult. Accordingly, examining these subtle yet important particularities cannot be traced Among ignored by the hackneyed translation studies frameworks. Ideational meta-functions, where the interplay between syntax and semantics brings about a text’s semantic constructs, are relatively understudied in translation studies in general and Arabic translation in particular. As translators mainly adopt linear, form-based, and/or meaning-based approaches, these meta-functions are left understudied. This study adopts an innovative approach based on Halliday’s systemic functional grammar to address the potential linguistic losses in the Arabic translation of The Prophet. It is observed that, although almost all of the meta-functions are adequately transferred into Arabic, some of them are not conveyed properly due to the improper selection of syntactic structure verbs.

Systematic linguistics examines the role-oriented grammar of language within the context of text and in the three domains of interpersonal, textual, and ideational metafunctions, explaining its function in the evolution of cognitive processes. Since linguistic structures such as grammatical rules, types of vocabulary, and their combinations are effective in shaping and developing human cognitive processes as well as in analyzing and understanding texts, studying the poem "al-Mawakib" as a significant, philosophical, and extended work with themes such as contemplation of nature, goodness, poetry, justice, life, and death based on linguistic analytical approaches reveals new dimensions of its technical and textual aspects. In this research, the analysis of the refrains in the poem "al-Mawakib" is conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and based on the interpersonal metafunction approach to elucidate its semantic coherence and structural features, thereby uncovering aspects of its linguistic characteristics and providing an understanding of the poem's content, implications, and messages. The research findings show that the poet uses various forms of declarative, emphatic, imperative, wishful expressions, and positive polarity to describe material and conceptual experiences. Through the repetition of declarative and emphatic statements, the poet engages with the audience, aligning them with his thoughts, and by using the imperative form, he invites them to play the "ney," which symbolizes eternity and tranquility.

 Halliday emphasizes on ideational, interpersonal and textural metafunctions in systematic functional linguistics, which can be useful for analyzing sentences of literary texts and understanding special styles of poets or writers. Shahnameh has the potential of being studied in different fields like linguistics, thus the writer analyzes styles of the stories of Iraj and Rostam and Shaghad, based on Halliday’s theory. This paper is an attempt to study the problem of different processes, interpersonal metafunctions, and textural cohesion in stories of Iraj and Rostam and Shaghad. The results of this study show that among all the used processes, material process has the highest frequency in both stories, which indicate concrete events and actions used in the scenes.  In non-structural part of textual metafunction, grammatical and lexical cohesions cause text connections and coordination. In grammatical cohesion, conjunctions and in lexical cohesion reiteration, repetition element has the highest frequency in both stories. Past form of the verbs are used and subjects are often obvious and indicative mood which emphasizes on truthfulness of propositions and certainty of the text has the most frequency in these stories. Investigating and adapting all three semantic layers of Halliday’s theory in the stories of Iraj and Rostam and Shaghad emphasizes on the unified, integrated, coherent structure of both texts.

 This research analyzes and evaluates modalization based on Halliday's systemic functional grammar (SFG) in the Azerbaijani Turkish language. In this SFG-based approach, mood and modality are examined within the mood structure which consists of two parts: (i) mood with elements of subject and finite and (ii) residue. In short, modality in this system refers to the space between two polarities, namely 'yes' and 'no'. In modalization, the commodity being exchanged is information and the utterance is considered as a proposition in which the speaker's attitude to the event is in the form of degrees of probability or possibility of occurrence or degrees of usuality; this means the possibility of recurrence. Despite the lack of attention to modality and its integration into the concept of mood in the Turkish grammar, the concept of modality in this system has been significantly distinguished from the category of mood. This research is an attempt to address the issues about (i) the presentation of modalization, (ii) the role of adjuncts in distinguishing between degrees of certainty and usuality and (iii) the presentation of past and present tense in mood finites in the Turkish language.

Methods & Materials 

First of all, to investigate modalization in the Azerbaijani Turkish language, the elements and constituents that make up mood structure and modalization in terms of possibility of occurrence, frequency, degrees, levels and elements involved in their formation were examined. In so doing, Azerbaijani Turkish clauses and their English and Persian equivalents were used. The theoretical framework of the current analysis was based on the mood structure in SFG) and the corpus was taken from the clauses in the literary and fictional sources in the Turkish language. The concept of modality has not been mentioned at all in the sources of the Azerbaijani Turkish grammar, and no study was found in the literature to address this issue based on SFG. Aijmer (2016), Nuyts (2001), Eggins (2004), and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) have widely examined modality based on SFG. Considering the integration of the concept of mood and modality in Turkish grammar, the aim of this research was to study the Azerbaijani Turkish language based on an approach that can make a clear distinction between these two categories.

The findings show that the mood structure in the Turkish language is also made up of two parts: mood and residue. The mood itself is composed of two components: the subject and the finite, and the residue includes the three functional elements of predicator, complement and adjunct. Results also show that predicators are an integral part of the mood structure and determine the presence, absence and number of complements in this constituent, while the presence of adjuncts in this structure is not mandatory and they can be removed from the clause. Concerning modalization, the study of the syntactic behavior of the elements and the morphemes involved in the clauses indicates that Azerbaijani Turkish expresses modality with "high" and "medium" degrees of certainty by means of the finite -mali. Also, unlike the English language that uses different finites, i.e., may and could, Azerbaijani Turkish uses the morpheme -abil which does not represent the semantic differences in its English equivalents. Examining the clauses of modalization in terms of probability and only with the presence of mood adjuncts showed that the ambiguity in Azerbaijani Turkish in terms of making a distinction in the degree of probability of occurrence is removed due to the presence of mood adjuncts. Furthermore, examining the modalization in terms of usuality with the presence of adjuncts of frequency in Azerbaijani Turkish showed that there is no ambiguity in the levels of usuality. A third state related to modalization in terms of probability with high and low degrees of certainty was also found. It was evident that the mood finites and the mood adjuncts were employed simultaneously. Despite the fact that the mood finites are the same in Azerbaijani Turkish, the ambiguity in the distinction between high and medium levels has been removed due to the presence of mood adjuncts; different mood adjuncts have raised the scale of certainty. Finally, the examination of modal verbs showed that in Azerbaijani Turkish - unlike English - the concept of tense does not appear in an integrated form with lexical verbs, but it emerges as a dependent morpheme. These morphemes are -di in the past tense and zero in the present tense. Surprisingly enough, in the current grammar sources of Azerbaijani Turkish, the morpheme -ir is mistakenly introduced as the morpheme of the present tense.

Overall, it is concluded that modalization in terms of probability in the Azerbaijani Turkish language is represented in three levels and states: (i) only with the presence of mood finites, (ii) only with the presence of mood adjuncts, and (iii) with the simultaneous presence of mood finites and mood adjuncts. The only difference is that the distinction between high and medium levels and also the semantic distinction between could and may at the low level is not possible in Azerbaijani Turkish. Modalization in terms of usuality is manifested only with the presence of mood adjuncts, and no ambiguity in different levels is observed. Not only the presence of mood adjuncts in modalization removes the ambiguity in the distinction between levels, but also their presence along with the mood finites can raise the degree of certainty of modalization in terms of probability. The combination of the morphemes of modality and tense generates mood finites in Azerbaijani Turkish. The morpheme -di indicates the past tense and its absence indicates the present tense, i.e., zero morpheme. Although the morpheme -ir is often reported to indicate the present tense in the Azerbaijani Turkish grammar sources, the SFG-based approach to Azerbaijani Turkish shows the process of the occurrence of verbs.

The purpose of teaching Arabic language is helping learners with correcting their language. However, descriptive teaching of Arabic language structure as a decontextualized phenomenon (without considering real life context) has become a complicated problem. Most of high school students and Arabic language students at university level complain about the challenges with complexity of Arabic grammar and their incapability in using the structure of this language. Therefore, Arabic language teaching, using functional grammar, needs simplification of its structure for students of all level of proficiency.  Looking from traditional point of view, we learn the grammar to apply it to the language but it could be easily discovered from the language itself, exactly like a child who learns his first language. Due to some historical and cultural reasons, there is a precious portion of Arabic statements and sentences from holy Quran and other religious sources available for the speakers of Persians which could be exploited within Arabic grammar simplification at different levels. This study tries to provide a functional method to simplify teaching and learning Arabic grammar, by using these language patterns. Results of a field study with 30 participants showed that the religious language patterns are the best and most frequents available sources for Iranian students. To simplify Arabic grammar teaching, it is necessary to use suggested 12-step procedure and present grammatical points within real life situations and use authentic examples to teach the grammar.

Due to the fact that the grammatical sources of the Azerbaijani Turkish language are generally based on traditional grammar and no distinction is made between the elements of tense and aspect in this approach, so the present study examines and compares these two elements in the Turkish and English languages based on the Halliday’s systemic functional grammar. In the first stage, the conjunctions of tense in Turkish language and then aspect in the form of English sentences with their Turkish equations were compared and examined and the following results were obtained: in all sources of traditional Azerbaijani Turkish grammar conjunctions -'ir ', "ar / әr And - miş, which actually represent the process of occurrence of the verb, are considered as representatives of tense. In other words, in the Turkish traditional grammar we are faced with a kind of fusion of tens and aspect. On the other hand, in the systemic functional grammar, the aforementioned morphemes are not included in the tens group, but, in the residue part, they play the first role of the predicators, i.e., they express the temporal aspect of the occurrence of the verbs. Also it was found that present tense morpheme in the Turkish language – contrary to the traditional grammar - is represented by the absence of the morpheme ‘- di’, that is, with a zero morpheme which according to the systemic functional grammar is placed in the 'predicator section. Tens morphemes in Turkish, unlike in English, which in some cases appear in the form of integration with lexical verbs, are always connected to the lexical verb base in the form of dependent morphemes.

Today, the stylistic study of literary works based on linguistics has expanded. Paul Simpson is one of the contemporary theorists who has provided practical and methodological strategies in the field of stylistics. The "transitivity" is one of his precise and methodical models, which is based on Halliday's "functional grammar". Transitivity is a special grammatical tool used to visualize experience in language and include the three elements of the process, the participants, and the circumstances. Therefore, in the stylistic analysis of texts with the model of transitivity, the above linguistic elements are emphasized.Moreover, research in the field of Persian mystical literature has often been done on the internal structures such as conceptual content and intellectual areas of the authors and less attention has been paid to the external structure and linguistic levels of these works; while evaluating them with new criteria is very effective in further understanding this precious heritage.Tamhidat is one of the richest writings of Sufis in expressing the principles of the path and mystical secrets and the result of personal experiences of Ein al-Qozat Hamedani, which has been conceptually analyzed and interpreted many times but has been less evaluated in terms of external and linguistic structures. The present study, using Paul Simpson's "transitivity" analysis model, analyzes the text and evaluates the components of that model, including phrases and verbal groups, nominal groups, circumstances (adverbial group and Preposition groups) and has dealt with all the frequent elements that have given this work a stylistic specificity in various forms.According to the results of the research, Ein al-Qozat, depending on the subject, has quoted 493 Quranic verses and 98 narrations of the Prophet. In addition, he has quoted in his work the words of 8 other prophets, the four caliphs, and 46 great men of religion and Sufism in his work. Apart from ideological sources, Ein al-Qozat has used 267 verses of Persian poetry and 11 verses of Arabic poetry in his book to emphasize various topics. For this study, some parts of Tamhidat have been selected that show the thought and art of Ein al-Qozat. A stylistic study of the transitivity in Tamhidat suggests that Ein al-Qozat, through the intellectual or experimental function of language, has used mental actions and processes (relations of the outside and inside world) in the service of the educational and doctrinal content of his work. He also used the interpersonal function more than any other type of language function in which language regulates the relationships between participants through indication, command, and interrogation in the form of verbal actions. Therefore, in Tamhidat in general, the use of relational and verbal processes is much more than other types. Material, behavioral, existential, and to some extent mental processes have not received much attention from Hamedani and are much less present in the Tamhidat.The relational processes of Tamhidat (how a phenomenon or a situation is reported) are expressed in the form of indicative sentences, which make up about 89%  of the total sentences and are used to report and teach. This feature introduces the Tamhidat as a news and reporting work. In the verbal process, which has the second place of application, some examples of stylistic features have been found:1-Using different types of “vocative sentence" and especially the call "O friend!" and "Dear!" with high frequency. This feature indicates the sincere communication of  Hamedani with the audience. 2- The use of "verbs" with first and secondary meanings, especially the specific use of "be" which is not used in the true sense of "being", but evangelism and in a way encouraging to be patient and carries a kind of definite prediction.3- Using "interrogative propositions" with secondary purposes such as denial questioning, denial of the subject, bowing and glorifying the subject, a small number of the audience and even blaming the audience.These characteristics show that the Ein al-Qozat has recognized and used different ways and methods of dialogue. Although the mental process is not used in high-frequency, the specific use of "sounds", especially with the implications of "sorry!", is a stylistic aspect. Ein al-Qozat has used it 177 times in various states, such as the inability to be puzzled, the intensity of the onslaught of meanings in his mind, pettiness, and regret. This feature shows the author's extreme pain (consciously).The high use of superhuman contributors and spiritual worlds introduces the Tamhidat as a spiritual book; on the other hand, the high frequency of employing human participants, as well as the high rate of use of emotions, positive and negative human actions make this book dedicated to human beings and the human world. Therefore, according to the research data, it can be said that the Tamhidat of Hamedani is a work in which the man has been depicted in a spiritual world.

According to Halliday, grammar consists of three main structures including: The representational, the interpersonal, and the contextual structure .These structures are the verifying factors of the representational, interpersonal and contextual highlighted of language. Since the individualized events and thoughts can be represented in the language, the role of language can be investigated in three levels .According to formalists, literariness is the departure from the natural norm of spoken language. In Halliday's view, meaning is the function in the context; therefore, meaning changes with the shift of functions. Because of its rich literature, Persian literature has been particularly popular languages like Minor Asia (Anatolia), the Balkans and India. It is taught as a literary language in their schools. Therefore, the Graduates of these schools have created many works in this language. The syntax used by these writers can be clearly evaluated by Halliday Functional Grammar. The purpose of the present study is to examine and evaluate the success of Minor Asian writers as well as their ability and inability to highlight syntactic roles and to attribute dead roles to syntactic components in three works. Qerimi and his writer doesn’t have a copy and translate it form other writers’ books.

Arabic language is among Semitic languages and because of being the religion language has a huge number of speakers. English language is among Indo-Europeans and it is science and technology language; furthermore, for being spoken globally, it has a significant status. In new theories, Halliday’s grammar is compiled with functional objectives. Clause is the main unit in Halliday’s grammar and each utterance which is concentrated around a verbal group is a clause. He has studied ideational, intersectional and textual meta-functions in his grammar. Textual meta-function is represented in theme and rhyme, intersectional meta-functions in the relation between speaker and addressee, and ideational meta-function in transitivity and processes. In his systematic grammar and transitivity structure, the process is the origin of every event and is represented by ideational meta-function. In Ideational meta-function, language arranges person experience. Empirical processes are the core and the center of a clause. A clause has participant and other circumstantial elements which have an effect on the amount of transitivity. Holliday’s functional grammar has paid vital attention to the meaning. Based on the assumption that experience patterns are DE codified in processes and transitivity, he has posed sextet processes. The main process is subdivided to material, mental and relational. Secondary process is divided to verbal, behavioral and existential. Main Participants of these processes are named differently such as actor in material, sensor in mental carrier in relational, sayer in verbal, behaver in behavioral and existent in existential. This inquiry studies comparative processes in the Arabic and English languages and tries to express differences and similarities in processes, main participants and circumstantial elements. It makes an effort to answer these questions: what is the definition of processes and verbs, transitivity in two languages, differences and similarities in process type. Structuralism believes that all verbs are transitive or intransitive and in the transitive verb, the action extents from verb to subject and object, but in functional grammar as Halliday and Mattsin have expressed: the more participants and circumstantial elements, the more is transitivity. The study of traditional grammar and modern linguistic in two languages shows that dissension in transitivity is in terminology and naming and in Arabic and English languages, it is used in the same meaning, but in the Arabic language in addition to being in context, there are some special forms making the verb transitive or intransitive, e.g. adding some prefixes, doubling a letter, etc. can make a verb transitive or vice versa that is very important. In Arabic language, transitivity is for verb and those verbs are called transitive verbs, but in practice whole clause is involved in belonging to verb, as in the English language it is extended to the whole clause and the clause is transitive or intransitive. Unlike Arabic language, there are no processes in the English that have three objects leading to more transitivity and the first object and second are direct and indirect, respectively. There is no category like those of Halliday in the Arabic language. Only Mental processes in Arabic are separated from others based on having two or three objects and they have been named (qolob) which means some thing related to heart, but in taking a clause as a phenomenon both languages are the same. Crucial differences are in relational and verbal processes. In English, there is a relational process which is mentioned in the clause and is like other processes, but it does not exist in Arabic language. The theme and rhyme can clarify the meaning of the clause, as Halliday and Matssin have described clearly in their book: “Introduction to functional grammar”. In some cases, there is a relational process with different names. In Arabic, verbal processes are deleted and substituted by interjections. About existential process, both languages are different. In English language, the word (there) fills the subject place but originally it is not a subject.  In Arabic, we have existential verb with subject like other processes and even some relational verbs can be used as existential when they are complete. It means they do not need another participant to completed. Some terminologies in functional grammar have different expressions in Arabic, e.g. attribute in material processes is (Hall) in Arabic language, so circumstantial elements in both languages, despite different expressions, have their effects on clause and consequently, on transitivity.

Previous studies on cohesion within Halliday and Hassan's (1976) Functional Grammar framework have mostly explored the use of one or two cohesive devices in various educational texts. The limited scope of these studies has impeded the development of an applicable model for all cohesive devices. Through an in-depth contrastive analysis, this study explored the relationship between the number of cohesive devices in written and spoken texts of “Let’s Learn Persian” textbook (Zolfaghari et al., 2008) and the simplicity/complexity of those texts. Through systematic random sampling, in each of the three levels nine lessons were selected. Since each lesson contained a written and a spoken text, in the end there were 27 written and 27 spoken texts for analysis. The texts were coded and categorized. Qualitative and quantitative analyses showed that there were significant relationships between the frequency of four types of cohesive devices (lexical cohesion, reference, ellipsis, and conjunction) and the complexity of the written texts. However, in spoken texts, only in the case of lexical cohesion and conjunction, significant relationships were observed between the frequency of cohesive devices and the texts’ complexity level. Overall, in the analyzed texts, lexical cohesion was the most frequent cohesive device while ellipsis and substitution were the least frequent cohesive devices. In both written and spoken texts, with regard to the frequency of the devices, a nearly identical rank order was observed which was as follows: lexical cohesion, in-text reference, conjunction, ellipsis, and substitution. This pattern of occurrence could inform the development and evaluation of level specific texts.
Expanded AbstractResearch literature has so far focused on representing cohesive devices in various language instruction texts based on Halliday and Hassan's (1976) Systemic Functional Grammar. However, these studies restricted themselves to identifying only one or two cohesive devices in these texts. Hence, studies need to adopt a practical comprehensive framework which would cover all cohesive devices especially in Persian language instruction texts. Through an in-depth contrastive analysis, this study aimed to address the relationship between the frequency of cohesive devices in written and spoken texts of “Let’s learn Persian” textbook and the difficulty level of its texts. The textbook series authored by Zolfaghari, Ghaffari, and Mahmoodi Bakhtiari (2008) includes three main levels: elementary, intermediate, and advanced. They were selected since they had both written and spoken texts. Nine written and spoken texts in each level (in total 27 written and 27 spoken texts) were selected through systematic random sampling. Having categorized and codified the selected texts, researchers analyzed the data quantitatively and qualitatively.  The quantitative and qualitative analyses of the data indicated that both written and spoken texts of “Let’s Learn Persian” textbook had various cohesive devices. As higher level texts were presupposed as more difficult ones, frequency of lexical cohesion, reference, ellipsis and conjunction increased in the higher level written texts.  It can be argued that there existed a significant relationship between the frequency of the mentioned cohesive devices and difficulty level of written texts. There was no significant relationship between substitution frequency and difficulty level of the texts. The frequency analysis of cohesive devices in spoken texts of all levels showed that there existed significant relations between conjunction, lexical cohesion, and text difficulty. The overall data analysis indicated that patterns of use of cohesive devices were highly similar in spoken and written texts. Indeed, both text types followed similar patterns of cohesive devices application, namely lexical cohesion, reference, conjunction, ellipsis and substitution. The only difference was related to the place of reference in the identified pattern. This difference can be due to endophric and exophoric reference manifestation in both text types. Regarding spoken texts, it can be argued that as the difficulty level increased, the frequency of endophoric reference also increased. However, the exophoric reference has not been observed as frequently in spoken texts. This can be explained in terms of the textbook developers’ assumption that non-Persian language learners may not enjoy enough background knowledge about the texts. Furthermore, the identified patterns can be indicative of the fact that lexical cohesions are the first and most significant cohesive devices in spoken and written texts. Of all types of lexical cohesions, repetition can be regarded as an effective cohesive device for non-Persian language learners which could aid them to transfer meaning more effectively. It can influence the tone of speech when the speaker wants to put more emphasis on meaning. Substitution and ellipsis were the least frequently observed cohesive devices in written and spoken texts as well. This showed that the texts were developed based on circumlocution. Indeed, the textbook developers selected the written and spoken texts which were appropriate for each instructional level. The low frequency of substitution and ellipsis showed that the textbook developers presupposed that the non-Persian learners and native Persian speakers had little or no shared background knowledge about the text contents. The normal distribution of cohesive devices in written and spoken texts of “Let’s learn Persian” textbook showed that the textbook developers could apply a systematic cohesive devices pattern. In other words, this sequential pattern of cohesive devices can be taken into account by textbook developers in designing or evaluating standard TPSOL textbooks. It is suggested that further studies explore how cohesive devices are used in other textbooks developed for Persian language learners. Comparison of the findings of these studies could help us to identify a more comprehensive pattern of cohesive devices which could aid in the development of standard Persian language teaching textbooks.

The ‘expression of comportment’ is one of the 22 chapters of the book ‘Al-Ensan Al-Kamel written by Aziz al-Din Nasafi in the seventh AH. In this chapter, he attempts to educate and motivate his audience by introducing and explaining the steps of comportment and its necessities. In this study, it is tried to become acquainted with the predominant speech of Nasafi about the concept of comportment and the conversational mechanisms and tools he adapted in this work by benefiting from the ‘text and meaning relationship with situational context’ theory in the systematic functional grammar of Halliday and investigating the parts in which an ideological and semantic value exists. Also, it is tried to express the relationship between the three-fold layers of situational context which are ‘range, nature and manner of speech’ and language semantic layers which are ‘ideational meta-function, interpersonal, and textual’. The author of this chapter has used the directive-didactic speech, and as it is apparent from the range and nature of speech that its audience is a ‘beginner Dervish’ and the persistence on ideological concepts are the most outstanding expressive mechanism of Nasafi. Intensifying methods, negation and exception, presentation of negation particles, the use of intensifying words in the negative sentences structure, the order of ‘syntactic structure’, placing imperative and deprecation verbs (mostly from knowing and understanding infinitives) at the beginning of sentences and the high use of these infinitives, using simple and understandable allegories and similes in an informal language and, especially, various repetitions are all among the expressive tools of Nasafi in the field of transferring his thoughts to his audience with an intensified tone. The range of speech in the different chapters of this chapter concerns the instruction of the main concepts of comportment. The central characters of the comportment conversations are the ‘wayfarer’ and ‘the old one/Guide’ which are the representation of mental and materialistic procedures, respectively.

This research aims at analyzing and comparing the development of lexical cohesive devices (repetition, collocation, synonymy, hyponymy, meronymy) in Persian-Speaking students’ written discourse at primary level (9 to 12 years old) according to logical meta-function introduced in Halliday and Mathiessen’s systemic functional grammar (2004). Descriptive analytical method is used in this study. 45 students (boys) studying at primary school (4th, 5th and 6th grades) in 1393-94 have been selected through random-sampling. Two written tests in the form of picture stories were administered for gathering the written data. Frequency, percentage and pattern of development of using lexical cohesive devices were compared and analyzed. The frequency of lexical cohesive devices in 4th, 5th and 6th grades were, 862, 967, and 1119. Repetition and collocation in all grades are the most frequent and hyponymy and meronymy are the least frequent devices. The percentage of repetition decreases from 4th grade to 6th grade while in hyponymy and meronymy it is increased. According to Kruskal–Wallis test the differences of using synonymy and repetition are not significant although differences of using collocation, hyponymy and meronymy are significant (p≤ 0/05). It seems that not only the frequency of different lexical cohesive devices in students’ written discourse increases as the grades increase, but also more sophisticated lexical cohesive devices are found in writings of the students in higher grades.

In functional grammar, it is assumed that patterns of experience are represented in language in the form of processes and via ideational metafunction. Accordingly, we can gain knowledge about the experiences, ideas and internal world of the writer by exploring various kinds of processes in the verbs and determining their frequency in literary text. The grammatical potential for representing experience in language is provided by transitivity system which is the mechanism for expressing the ideational and experiential metafunction in language. This paper investigates the mystical experiences of Ruzbahan in Abhar al-Asheghin according to functional approach to the verbs. The experiences are analyzed based on transitivity system in terms of Halliday's functional grammar. Considering the results of this study, the experiencer is active and doer in most of the cases. Most non-relational verbs are transitive and denote past tense. More than 70% of relational verbs occur at present time and more than 90% of these experiences which are expressed via indicative mood are absolutive. Thus, regarding the method of narration, it can be argued that the love experiences expressed in Abhar al-Asheghin have just occurred before writing. Reading the narrative, the mind is separated from natural time and place and, with narrator, connects to the moment of encounter and seeing.

Language has different functions and uses in society and social phenomena in functionalist grammar. So, linguistic phenomena can be studied through this approach. On the basis of functional theory, patterns of experience manifest in form of processes through idealistic meta-functions. Accordingly, we can realize the linguisticbehavior of the poet or the writer in world representation studying different types of existing processes in verbs and determining their frequencies. For example, Hafiz, in his romantic and Qalandar lyrics, uses material processes which imply expression of the outside world more than the other processes, or verbal processes are used besides other elements of narration in some sonnets with debate and narrative space. In this article, the verbs of 100 of Hafiz's sonnets are studied in the framework of Halliday's systemic functional grammar (SFG). Knowing the frequency of several types of verbal processes and how to apply them in sonnets has been considered as a stylistic criterion.

Experts have different methods for grouping or, determining the style of the works proposed. So it sounds inevitable to have disagreement on style of works. The authors do not seek to confirm or reject common stylistics methods, but they are going to propose a noble criterion as an indicator of style. In this paper transitivity grammatical metaphor has been introduces as a stylistic device. In order to do this two Persian stories, “Asrar-e Darre Jenni” written by Ebrahim Golestan and “Modir-e Madrese” by Jalale Ale Ahmad, have been selected as sample and they have been analyzed in descriptive-analytical method. Transitivity grammatical metaphors from these works have been extracted and then have been compared. The number of transitivity grammatical metaphor in “Asrar-e dare Jenny” compared with the “Modir-eMadrese”, is much less and in this story, conversion of mental process to existential and then mental to relational process, are more than the others. In “Modir-e Madrese”, unlike the “Asrar-eDarre Jenny”, transitivity grammatical metaphor is impressive and the most metaphors that has been used in this story, are conversion of relational processes to material ones and then verbal processes to material ones. Results confirm our hypothesis based on the application of grammatical metaphor as a stylistic device because according to the results of study, the difference is obvious both in terms of amount and type of transitivity grammatical metaphor.