جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « ساخت اطلاع » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

This research has investigated the topic in commercial advertising from the perspective of Lambrecht information structure framework by a descriptive -analytic method. 282 commercial advertisements have been collected from TV, radio, internet, commercial posters and street billboards. The main question of this research is how the Lambercht’s framework accounts for the representation of topic in advertising. Results showed that from 288 advertisements, 155 appeared as topic in form of nouns or pronouns, 86 in zero form, and 41 as antitopic. In terms of function, content and statistics there was no significant difference between television and internet advertisement. On the other hand, in posters and billboards advertising, no difference was found. That is to say, in both of them audio-verbal factors are not involved and only the visual factor has an effective role on the addressee.

This research tried to investigate a specific case of pronominal enclitic (eš/aš) in colloquial Persian based on functional approach. Two novels including a total of 56,500 words and the data on the internet were used as corpus. A corpus of 110 sentences with the desired structure were extracted. The investigation revealed that the reference of pronominal enclitic is the common and assumed knowledge of interlocutors which might be represented as a proposition in the discourse or activated by an element in the language. The pronominal enclitic is structurally a presupposition trigger and adjuncts (rastaš, haqiqataš, vaqeiataš) are discourse markers. The reference enclitic holds old information and is a specified definite. The predicate following enclitic holds new information and is a specified indefinite. This predicate contains focal information. The third person singular enclitic appears both as an adjunct and as a clause at the beginning of the sentence and can be omitted. Their semantic and pragmatic function is truth assertion.

The aim of this research is to investigate object omission based on Role and Reference Grammar. Object omission is a valency-reduction process in which a verb which is transitive in nature, appears without its object. This study, will indicate semantic, syntactic and pragmatic representation of the aforementioned construction with respect to the presented concepts in Role and Reference Grammar including the layered structure of the clause, logical structure, semantic macroroles, information structure, activation status of the referents and linking algorithm. Explaining object omission in the framework of RRG, indicates one of the advantages of this grammar. Although RRG attends to the interaction between form and function, it declines the abstract layers or elements in the syntactic analysis. Accordingly, in this grammar the syntactic structure of the clause is represented based on what is explicitly applicable. Therefore, RRG is not faced with any restriction in explaining object omission and regarding what is explicitly presented in the sentence, it behaves with transitive verbs which omit their objects as intransitive ones. The most specific attainments of investigating object omission in the framework of RRG are as follows: In the layered structure of a clause with omitted object, one of the arguments of the core will be reduced and the syntactic representation will be like an intransitive verb with just one argument (subject) in the core. The logical structure of such verbs, likewise, will be represent with just one argument (x), unlike transitive verbs which has two arguments (x, y) in logical structure. Regarding the aktionsart type of the verbs, the findings indicate that activities are the most frequent verbs in object omission construction. the reason is that the second argument of activity verbs is not a macrorole and therefore can be omitted. Describing object omission with regard to information structure and activation status of the referents in RRG shows that as in the aforementioned construction the object is omitted, it cannot be a focal or topical element and its referent can be considered as an accessible one. Since it is the hearer’s knowledge of the world that makes it possible to understand the notion of the omitted object. Moreover, in this study, regarding object omission construction, linking algorithm from semantic to syntax and from syntax to semantics has been provided. The bidirectional diagrams show that the linking principles of selecting and linking undergoer in both directions will not exist in the objectless sentences.

Discourse markers are language elements that linguists do not have a consensus about their nature as well as their role and function. The present study aimed to investigate the function of Persian discourse markers as reference elements, based on Fraser's (1999, 2006) approach. For this purpose, a corpus of two types of political and economic texts was selected. Taking print run and history into consideration, 16 editorials of Kayhan newspaper for political texts and 15 editorials of Donya-e-Eqtesad newspaper for economic texts were analyzed, and the discourse markers were classified into four categories: contrastive, elaborative, inferential and temporal. Data analysis showed that the formula presented by Fraser (1999, 2006), for the sequence of sentences connected by discourse markers, is slightly different in Persian and should be rewritten as S2+DM.S1 /S1.S2 + DM. Furthermore, based on the importance of the information contained in the sentences preceding and succeeding the markers, they can be divided into cataphoric marking (markers placed after the main message), anaphoric marking (markers placed before the main message), and joint marking (markers placed between two main messages). Data analysis indicated that contrastive and elaborative markers are considered as joint marking, and inferential and temporal markers are anaphoric marking in Persian. Based on the research findings, it can be concluded that discourse markers can have a referencing function in information structure.

Dabir-Moghaddam (1972,2004) believes that -râ, moreover, is syntactically the function word of the explicit object, can also be informationally the marker of its secondary topic. Meanwhile, some researchers have challenged the use of -râ as a secondary topic marker in the explicit object when it is indefinite or when it is considered as an informative focus in response to the speaker's question in the discourse context. They have considered the marker-râ being fastened on factors such as identifiability, specificity, and definiteness. The current study's goal is to examine the marker-râ using the LFG approach of King (1997), Butt & King (2000), and Abubakari (2018), relying on the definitions provided by the secondary topic by Dabir-Moghaddam (1972,2004), Dalrymple & Nikolaeva (2011). The research methodology is descriptive-analytical, and the data was collected in two ways: in the library and field. The findings reveal that in the f-structure, the grammatical preposition-râ is placed in the (PFORM) feature and can indicate the grammatical function of the theme/patient oblique instead of the grammatical function of the explicit object. In the i-structure, -râ is placed in the (DFORM) feature and leads to secondary topic marking. In the c-structure, as the preposition's head, it also causes the formation of the prepositional phrase. Also, in the above-mentioned challenging cases, it has been shown that with a suggestion of the layered i-structure, the râ-Marker as a (DFORM) marks secondary topic at the sentence level and the secondary topic can be placed on the inner or outer layer of other informative elements at a level beyond the sentence. Therefore, it can be concluded that the mentioned approach in the LFG in line with the opinion of Dabir-Moghaddam (1972,2004) on the effect of syntactic and informational factors on the occurrence of -râ, can show a comprehensive representation of the marker-râ.

Persian texts of the earlier period, can be selected as a good case study in the field of linguistics. It is possible to look at the texts of this period through the window of functionalist frameworks and to describe its linguistic features in such a way as to become a stylistic research tool for further ado. Investigating the order of the elements in a sentence and information structure, and then communicating these two categories together allows the linguist to better understand the meaning (function) relationship with the linguistic form, and can also be a tool for identifying the stylistic features of each period. The present study attempts to consider information structure in the fifth century within the framework of Holliday’s systematic functional grammar, and also to statistically describe the order of the elements in a sentence and the syntactic structure throughout this period. The body of work contains 1,200 sentences from works such as Kashf-ul-Mahjub, Bayhaqi's History, the Qeshiriiyya treatise, al-Tafhim, the Qâboosnameh and the Ala'i encyclopedia, and then after, the patterns of ordering the main structures were identified in these texts. It was also determined whether the following sentences matched each of the patterns of information structure. This research showed that in the fifth century, the basic or unmarked form of the main elements of action statements, regarding their order, obeys the SOV pattern, and in the whole body of sentences, it corresponds to the head-final structures. The number of marked sentences was only ten percent of the whole body, which can be inferred as the flexibility of the texts in this period, in terms of the word order of the sentence. Investigating the state of information structure in this period also demonstrated that only 5% of sentences were under the marked patterns of information structure.

Information structure (IS) investigates the relationship between linguistic forms and mental referents of different utterances. Information structure, on one hand, is concerned with formal aspects of language and, on the other hand, it deals with functional aspects of language. This rather abstract approach, however, has received less attention comparing with tangible aspects of grammar such as morphology and syntax. Furthermore, those dealing with information structure were not consistent in terms of methodology and terminology that they employed. Accordingly, Prague School scholars employed “Functional Sentence Perspective” to refer to information structure. In the same vein, Halliday (2004) called it “Thematic Structure”; Chafe (1976) employed “Information Packaging”; and Vallduvi (1994) referred to this component of grammar as “Informatics”. Another issue to be dealt with in this study is “argument dislocation”. It is intended to investigate the effect of information structure on argument dislocation in Southern Kurdish. A dislocated structure is composed of two parts: detached part and propositional part. In propositional part, there is a pronoun which is co-referent with the dislocated noun phrase. Information structure may be among the key reasons why noun phrases are dislocated and appear as detached NPs in the left and right of sentences. In other words, for any NP, being topical or focal may alter the argument structure of any given clause. Lambrecht (1994: 188) used the term “topic” to refer to the dislocated NPs in the left side of the clause. He also referred to detached NPs in the right side of the clause as “anti- topic”.  

As stated above, the present study is intended to gauge the role of information structure (IS) in the formation of dislocated sentences in southern Kurdish (Kalhori) in Iran. Accordingly, the topical and focal arguments were identified and the possibility of dislocation of these arguments was, also, assessed. Information structure is among the main factors which can affect the syntax of sentences. The present study is theoretically based on the framework presented by Lambrecht (1994, 2001). Methodologically, it is a descriptive- analytic study in which linguistic intuition, observation, targeted interviews and consulting with authentic library sources were employed tools to collect the data. Moreover, the researchers of this study are both native speakers of southern Kurdish (Kalhori) which was an advantage in their judgments and decisions. In some cases, to ensure to make a right decision, a given structure was presented to many native speakers. The data were gathered from southern Kurdish (Kalhori dialect) spoken by people in the city of Eivan in the west of Iran. Kalhori Kurdish is mainly spoken in some parts of Ilam and Kermanshah Provinces in cities such as Kermanshah, Eivan, Gilan-e-Gharb, and Eslam Abad Gharb.

Information structure or information distribution across different sentences may result in syntactic variations and formation of various linguistic forms. All language components including, morphology, syntax, prosody and lexicon can be affected by information distribution. In the present study, an attempt was made to shed light on the role of information structure in the formation of so-called dislocated structures based on data from southern Kurdish in the west of Iran. The results indicated the topical subjects and objects (as the main arguments) are appropriate candidates to undergo left/ right dislocation, while their empty place (in argument structure of the clause) is filled with resumptive pronouns (pro and object enclitics). In contrast, focal arguments (left/right) dislocation would result in an infelicitous discourse. In other words, the detached NP in so-called dislocated structures must have degrees of identifiability to be placed at the beginning of the sentence as a possible topic. Overall, based on the results, two syntactic patterns are possible in southern Kurdish. First, in the presence of focal arguments, an inflexible sequence of (S O V) will be the only syntactic pattern in southern Kurdish. Second, if the arguments are topical, then a more flexible word order and a lot of syntactic dislocations are more probable. The Separation of Role and Reference Principle (SRRP) was proposed by Lambrecht (1994: 184) to refer to so-called dislocated structures. This principle is rooted in a pragmatic rule which states that if you introduce a new referent in a clause, do not talk about it in the same clause (lambrecht, 1994: 185). For our interlocutor, it is easier to process a clause whose new referent is located outside of the clause as a detached NP, because identifying the topic (detached NP) and interpretation of the related proposition take place independently. On the other hand, in terms of articulation, producing such a structure in which a new and non-identifiable topic is introduced independently from its related clause would be easier for the speaker.

In dislocated structures, detached NPs are “reference- based” due to their semantic content, while the resumtive pronouns which fill the empty position of detached NPs in the argument structure of the clause are “function-based” (Lambrecht, 1994: 187). Unlike left dislocation (LD) which places topical elements in the beginning of the clause (pre-posing), right dislocation (RD) or anti-topic post-poses the topical elements at the end of the clause. Like LD, this process enables the language users to follow “the Separation of Role and Reference Principle” (SRRP) in the appropriate communicative situations. The obtained results based on southern Kurdish proved that the detached NP in RD (unlike RD) would not be new topic or is not indicative of topic discontinuity. The findings of this study proved, also, that the detached NP in LD and RD would be different in terms of their relative identifiability. It was found that the detached NP in RD is more identifiable comparing with the detached NP in LD, while LD is mainly used to introduce possible topics which have not been established as topic in that given context.

Persian owns a flexible syntax and is thought to be a free word order language. In this paper, employing a Role and Reference Grammar framework, we argue that constituent reordering in preposing and left-dislocation constructions of the Persian left-periphery is the result of the interface between information-discourse structure, on the one hand, and a certain syntactic position in the layered structure of the clause, on the other: topical, focused, and contrastive constituents are hosted respectively by the left-detached position, pre-core slot, and kontrast position. Bear in mind that each position requires a certain discourse condition to be met. We also show that non-canonical constituent orders at the Persian left-periphery are not merely a rearrangement of syntactic units for pragmatic reasons, they are in effect ‘constituent ordering constructions’ in line with the notion of construction as proposed and defined in the RRG theory.

Mostly, several formal structures could be used to express a specific proposition. In fact, under different communicative circumstances, speakers choose a grammatical structure among different ones with the same proposition to express their idea. Different factors could affect such choice and in this research, we examine whether information structure has any effect on this matter. Generally, information structure focuses on studying paired sentences which are semantically identical, but not grammatically or pragmatically. One kind is multiple argument realization, in which a verb appears with its arguments in diverse formal structures with a single meaning. Therefore, we have analyzed some multiple argument realizations of two argument verbs in Persian based on the theory of information structure introduced by Lambrecht (1994). The data consisting of around 150 sentences in 50 multiple realizations, have been collected from a few Iranian newspapers and then studied in accordance with the mental states of the interlocutors and pragmatic relations, topic and focus. The analysis showed that the mental representation of discourse referents, pragmatic articulation of sentences along with different focus structures have an impact on shaping and using this kind of realization. Moreover, it has been found that processes such as preposition and topic promotion play an important role in this matter.

Other things being equal, grammatical subject is coded as the theme of the clause. In marked cases, however, other non-subject arguments and prepositional phrases may appear as the theme due to some processes, including pre-posing. Accordingly, the goals of the present study are three-fold. First, it aims at investigating the information status of grammatical subject as the unmarked theme of the clause. Secondly, it intends to find the marked themes in the non-canonical constructions, including inversion, topicalization, passivization, and scrambling. Preposing as a cover terms includes all these processes. Accordingly, this study is set out to examine information status, syntactic category, and grammatical function of preposed constituents (marked themes). The degree of matching between grammatical subject and theme is also investigated. This study is a corpus-based one in which the data are collected from two different corpora: a movie (Separation by Farhadi) and a football report. The theory of information structure by Prince (1992) revised in Birner (2013) is adopted as theoretical model of the study. Based on this theory, information is classified in terms of discourse and hearer. Accordingly, information status of any constituent can be one of these for cases: discourse old- hearer old, discourse old- hearer new, discourse new- hearer old, and discourse new- hearer new. This classification is applied to the collected themes (both marked and unmarked) of both corpora. Halliday (2004) is another theoretical basis of this study. Different types of themes are taken from Halliday(2004) to be analyzed in terms of information status. The focus in this study is on topical themes (not interpersonal or textual themes). The target themes were, then, coded based on the theoretical model and they were analyzed by SPSS (version 23). In terms of syntactic markedness, the results indicated that in football report, there were more numbers of marked syntactic structures comparing with the film corpus. As for the match between subject and theme, the results indicated a higher amount of match between these two concepts in film corpus comparing with football report corpus. The lower match between subject and theme in football report can be accounted for by the higher number of movements and dislocations in the syntactic category of this type of language.  As stated, the main goal of this study was to investigate the information status of both marked and unmarked themes. As for unmarked theme (subject), the results showed that in film corpus such themes are mainly old (more than 90%) both in terms of discourse and hearer. In contrast, the themes were found to be mainly discourse-old but hearer new (more than 65%) in the football report corpus.  This is due to the different nature of these two corpora. In daily conversations (film), we have topic continuity, while in football the sentences are expressed to refer to different individuals (no topic continuity). As stated, preposed (marked themes) are also investigated. As for information status, there is almost the same pattern as unmarked themes. Most of the marked themes in film corpus are old both in terms of discourse and hearer. In football report corpus, however, the marked themes (preposed themes) are mainly discourse- old and hearer new. This is somehow problematic, since the discourse old entities cannot be hearer-new. Prince (1992) resolved this problem by raising the issue of schemata and set relations. She believed that many referents are implied in the discourse and hence counted as being discourse-old.  She called them inferable. In football report corpus, there were many such inferable marked themes. Another unexpected finding was the high amount of new preposed themes in film corpus which seems to contradict the previous literature (Birner, (1996), for example). Careful examination of literature does not ban the occurrence of new pre-posed items in theme position, although themes naturally have identifiable referents. ‘recency of new-ness/ old-ness proposed by Birner (1996) can account for the emerged pattern in the present study. The results of this study are important both theoretically and practically. Many findings showed that the constraints on preposing are not observed in the two investigated corpora. It implies that Persian language, due to its flexible word order, does not follow the rules of other languages. It seems there is a connection between language type and the kind of the constraints in that language. This can be a suggestion for further study to find the appropriate constraints governing information status of themes in Persian. Another implication of this study is the fact that in the same language, we do not have the same patterns as far as the information status of themes is concerned. As it was found, the information status of themes in film corpus was dramatically different from football report corpus. Therefore, one cannot generalize the results obtained in a study to the whole language.

This research is the case study of cleft structures in the translation of texts from French into Persian in the framework of Lambrecht’s information structure theory (1996). The study has been conducted on cleft sentences of six books in French and their translations in Persian. In this descriptive-analytic research, the cleft structures in French texts have been identified and compared with their equivalents in Persian translations. Then, the collected data have been classified separately based on Lambrecht’s information structure theory and the topic-focus relations. This research investigates semantic-pragmatic differences as well as distribution of new-old information in each case in the source language and the translation into the target language. The results of this study indicate that despite the possibility of using cleft structures in both languages, 58% of cleft sentences in French have been rendered into Persian non-cleft structures and only 42% of cleft sentences have been translated as clefts in Persian. Moreover, in the study of non-cleft translated sentences in Persian, 70% and 30% of the clefted constituents have occupied the topic and the non-topic positions respectively. In addition, by providing examples from the research data, it has been shown that the argument focus in cleft structures has been changed into predicate focus or sentence focus due to the shift of the syntactic structure, and as a result, the emphatic meaning of these sentences in the target language has been lost.

Language form is affected by many factors. This study is intended to investigate the information distribution in the simple Persian marked and unmarked structures. Information structure deals with how old (evoked) and new information are distributed in the sentences of a text. The present study is aimed at investigating the information structure of Pre-posed constituents of Persian simple sentences. Grammatical role and syntactic category of the pre-posed constituents were, also, investigated. To achieve the goals, a corpus including 226 simple sentences from a football match between Real Madrid and Juventus was investigated to analyze the information status of pre-posed constituents. The collected sentences were all simple (marked and unmarked) sentences. Prince (1992), Ward and Birner (2004) and Birner (2013) were referred to frequently as theoretical model of this study. After collecting the data, they were codified and analyzed employing SPSS software version 23. Findings revealed that most of the pre-posed constituents were old (evoked or inferential) in terms of discourse, while new in listeners' view. As far as grammatical role is concerned, indirect objects were found to be pre-posed more than other grammatical roles. Finally, in terms of syntactic categories, the pre-posed constituents were found to be mainly noun phrases and prepositional phrases.

The current research examines the word order and the application of the topic and focuses on the Lahijani dialect with emphasis on the discourse functions such as the speaker, listener, and context. This study is based on the framework proposed by Erteschik-Shir (2007) and Whaley (1997). The objective is to know what the word order is in this dialect and how it interacts with information structure. To gather the data, native speakers’ conversations have been recorded for 8 hours (800 sentences). Data analysis shows that Lahijani is a verb-final language (with a high frequency of SOV order) with a free word order. It is a non-configurational language. Four types of topics have been determined, such as; stage, permanently and temporarily, null (topic-drop), and multiple topics. In Lahijani, every sentence must have at least one topic to be interpreted. Topic as given information tends to appear both clause initially and finally. Two types of foci as new information are determined: contrastive and restrictive focus. Context determines whether a constituent is a topic or focus; both can be contrastive. Therefore, Lahijani has both flexible word order and flexible information structure notions (as marked forms) in which both syntactic elements and information structures can be moved freely by speakers’ pragmatic intention. Thus, the main factor for this flexibility is the speakers’ pragmatic intention.

This study aims to investigate the focus construction and its markers in Kalhori Kurdish. It should be noted that focus is shown with phonetic, morphologic or syntactic markers in different languages. The data were collected through observation and interview with Kalhori Kurdish speakers in Kermanshah. The findings showed that the focus markers in Kalhori Kurdish include /ke/ and /xo/ used in the same sense. Moreover, it was found that although these two focus markers have the same meaning, their usage varies in different declarative, imperative, interrogative (yes/no questions & wh-questions) and exclamatory sentences. However, in exclamatory sentences the speakers use none of these two markers to show emphasis. The results indicated that although the speakers use both focus markers in declaratives and yes/no questions, /ke/ is simply used in imperatives and wh-questions. Also, the research findings showed that /ke/, as a focus marker, is used less than /xo/.

Information structure deals with how old (evoked) and new information is distributed in the sentences of a text. The present study is aimed at investigating the information structure of post-posed constituents of Persian simple sentences. Grammatical role and syntactic category of the post-posed constituents were, also, investigated. To achieve the goals, a corpus including 226 simple sentences was investigated to analyze the information status of post-posed constituents. Ward and Birner (2004) and Birner (2013) were referred to frequently as theoretical model. The findings revealed that most of the post-posed constituents were old (evoked or inferential) in terms of discourse, while new in listeners' view. As far as grammatical role is concerned, subjects (apposed to previous literature) were found to be post-posed more than other grammatical roles. Finally, in terms of syntactic categories, the pos-posed constituents were found to be mainly prepositional phrases and noun phrases

Direct objects are encoded via specific grammatical tools in Persian. Using random data mostly from colloquial Persian (and written Persian in case of need), the author first intend to introduce these tools. Employing the Layered Structure of the Clause and Focus Structure as defined in Role and Reference Grammar, the author proceeds to formally represent the tools via syntactic templates that contain information-structural properties of the direct object. We learn that the hypothesis regarding the direct object being a secondary topic marker in the spirit of ra-marking (Dabir-Moghaddam, 2006) needs to be discarded. Information-structurally, not only is the direct object qualified to be part of the pragmatic presupposition, hence serving as the topic of the sentence, it is also licensed to constitute a narrow focus by itself or to participate in predicate and sentence focus structures. This originates from the fact that -ra in Persian signals the identifiability of the object’s referent in the interlocutors’ discourse universe. It is also proposed that the bi-fold classification of a narrow focus into in-situ information focus and ex-situ contrastive focus does not only apply to the narrow focus in the spirit of Persian data. A predicate focus can be contrastive when a ra-marked object residing at the Pre-Core Slot is disjoined from the transitive predicate by an intervening subject. In actuality, this discontinuous predicate focus structure is ‘construed’ as a contrastive narrow focus.

This article, first, is concerned with the study of left-dislocation and its information-structural implications in Persian. Left-dislocation in Persian is syntactically manifested by the topical and contrastive left-dislocation constructions. The double external possession construction as an instantiation of the topical left-dislocation is characterized by the sequence of two external possessors in the left-periphery of the core. The contrastive left-dislocation construction is distinguished from the topical one via the focality and position of the left-dislocated element figuring inside the clause. Each construction has specific syntactic and information-structural properties that the layered structure of the clause in the present RRG, as the framework of this study, fails to account for. Incorporating the concepts of discourse saliency and contrast as explicit selection among alternatives into the information-structural lexicon in RRG, the author of the present study tries to extend the scope of the left-periphery in the theory so as to increase its typological adequacy.

German language has a subject–verb–object (SVO) word order in independent clauses and a subject–object–verb (SOV) order in dependent clauses. Despite this feature, which is totally different from Farsi and English (these two languages both use the same word in dependent and independent clauses), German has a flexible word order. That is to say each of the syntactic functions (e.g. subject, direct object, indirect object, and adverb) can occur before the conjugated verb (referred to as Vorfeld), between the conjugated verb and the second verb (known as Mittelfeld, in sentences with a modal or linking verb), or after the second verb or the infinitive (called Nachfeld position in German grammar). The present study focuses on the arrangement of elements in the Mittelfeld position according to the information structure rules and other factors, such as definiteness, animacy, and pronoun placement. The significance of the study comes from the fact that there is no limitation on the places words can take in the middle of the sentence, as opposed to the Vorfeld position in which only one element can be placed. A question that is often raised here and that many German learners struggle to answer is: What are the rules underlying placement of elements in different positions? The answer to this question lies in that feature of the German language pointed to earlier in the abstract, i.e. the flexible word order in German. Referring to the rules of information structure and introducing other factors affecting word order in the middle of the sentence, the present paper (through a descriptive-analytical approach) shows that in addition to the relative freedom in the arrangement of grammatical words, semantic and pragmatic factors can also influence Words’ order. The results indicate that a number of these factors are sometimes in contradiction to one another. After scrutinizing a few example sentences, some decisive examples are presented.