جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « syntax » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

In Persian, which adheres to an SOV word order, complement clauses or prepositional objects typically follow the direct object in their conventional position. However, there is the potential to move this phrase to different positions within the sentence. However, this phrase can be moved to other positions in a sentence. Multiple explanations exist for this phenomenon. One such explanation is within Lexical-Functional Grammar, suggesting that the relocated constituent finds its place within lexical entries. More specifically, event-related potential (ERP) was used to investigate this processing in the centro-parietal part of the brain (for the for N400 and P600 components) following the Friedrici model of language comprehension (1995). This research aims to investigate how wh-complement displacement in Persian is processed within the verb's lexical entry using event-related potentials, rooted in the syntactic-semantic role structure. Specifically, this study focuses on the N400 central-anterior component, as introduced by Friedrich in the field of language processing in 1995. Given Persian's rich inflection, which permits various word orders, we examined four distinct positions for complement clauses in the sentences under study, constructing 50 sentences for each condition. These sentence conditions were thoughtfully designed based on consistent word length and syntactic category. To delve deeper into the verb's lexical entry, we presented sentences in a structured format on a display screen and provided comprehensive explanations to participants before the experiment. Participants were instructed to articulate words without any lip or facial movement. Brain responses were recorded as event-related potentials during reading and subsequently analyzed using MATLAB software with EEGlaB. The results reveal that complement clause displacement triggers distinct brain responses within the lexical entry of verbs, marked by an increased N400 amplitude in the central-anterior region when the complement clause is in its canonical position. These findings lead to the conclusion that the movement of the complementizer in Persian follows a Lexical-Functional grammar within the neurophysiological model put forth by by Friedrich's model of syntactic processing .The main conclusions to be drawn from these bits of evidence are the displacement of the Wh-complement in lexical entries of verb in Persian has a neurophysiological basis.

The German language has four grammatical cases: Nominative (Nominativ)– subject, Accusative (Akkusativ)– direct object, Dative (Dativ)– indirect object, and Genitive (Genitiv)– possessive. Grammatical case is mostly responsible for determining the syntactic-semantic relations in the sentence. In languages that have a relatively free sequence of words, case can pave the way to recognize grammatical relations and understand semantic relationships. Grammatical case is formed in two ways: 1. case government/ rection, and 2. case congruence. Case government/ rection is the syntactic relationship between two linguistic phrases. That is to say that the first linguistic element determines the grammatical features of the second linguistic element that is dependent on it. In the German language, four lexical categories determine grammatical case: verb, preposition, adjective and noun. In the second type of grammatical case assignment, the noun phrase takes the grammatical case of another noun phrase without being dependent on it. Case congruence is observed in predictive nominal phrases, conjunctive phrases and apposition. There exists, however, yet another grammatical case which is called "free case". The complications related to free case, which will be discussed in the present paper, are due to the fact that the reason for its appearance in the sentence is not clear, and it is often considered by language learners as a direct object. In this research, in addition to introducing free case and its types, the ways of distinguishing this type of grammatical case from the grammatical case that are granted through lexical elements in the sentence are shown. It is sought to investigate the extent to which language learners are familiar with free case and whether they can distinguish the syntactic functions formed through free case from those dependent on the verb of the sentence. It is hypothesized that lack of knowledge about free case would make language learners face problems in recognizing syntactic functions. Therefore, in the experimental phase of this study, two groups of language learners were asked to participate in a related test.

Background of Study:

In a book titled "Grammatical Case" Sahel, (2018) has discussed in detail the various dimensions of case. In this book, in addition to discussing topics such as case government, case congruence, and the relationship between semantic roles and grammatical case, the writer also discusses how grammatical case is learned by children. Czepluch (1996) compared grammatical case in German and English languages. On the other hand, Dürscheid (1999) tried to provide a comprehensive definition and description of grammatical case from the point of view of syntax and meaning. Also, Einsenbeiß (1994) addressed the relationship between grammatical case and word sequence in the German language and examined the learning of these issues in the first language. Marks (2014) discussed the issue of teaching grammar to immigrant students and the difficulties faced by language teachers. Also, Vater (2006) referred to the issue of features of the grammatical case in the construction of apposition, and, in 2015, in another study, examined the issue of changes and fluctuations in the grammatical case in contemporary German. In her doctoral thesis, Egorova (2006) discussed the issue of grammatical case in German language, examining the adverbial role of direct and indirect objects in nominal groups and their corresponding grammatical cases. 

With the aim of applying this research, the main part of the present article, which is focused on the distinction between different grammatical cases in the German language, was investigated through data collection. To this end, 28 undergraduate students in the field of German language and literature at Shahid Beheshti University were invited to participate in the test. The students were divided into two groups of fourteen participants. The experimental group consisted of 14 students (nine female and five male students in the age range of 19 to 30 years). The experimental group participants who were at the end of their fifth semester participated in a 90-minute face-to-face session in the course "Advanced German Linguistics" and learned about "Free Case in German Language". The control group also included 14 students (ten female and four male students in the age range of 18 to 26 years). The students in the control group, who were at the end of their third semester when they participated in the test, had only learned about the structure of the German language in the courses "Grammatical Analysis" and "Basics of Linguistics". After the training of the experimental group, both groups participated in the test which consisted of three sections. In the first section of the test, six sentences were presented and the participants were asked to identify the direct object of the verb. In the second part, five sentences were presented and the participants were asked to determine the indirect object of the verb. In the third and final part of the test, seven sentences were presented to the participants and they were asked to determine the object related to the verb of the sentence. In the end, the results obtained from both groups in all three sections were analyzed.

In the present study, free grammatical case in German language was discussed. Case government and case congruence were also introduced through various examples. It was shown in what cases the free grammatical case of the direct object, which takes the grammatical role of the adverb, is manifested. Also, the types of grammatical case of the free indirect object were delved into. Next, in addition to introducing the grammatical case of the indirect object, it was also pointed out that this grammatical case shares a common feature with the grammatical case of the direct object, in which both of them play the grammatical role of the adverb in the sentence. Next, with the aim of applying this research, the main part of the present study, which is focused on the distinction between different grammatical cases in the German language, was examined in a data-oriented way. To this end, examples of all three grammatical Oblique case were given to the experimental and control groups. The results revealed that in all cases, the number of correct answers by the participants of the experimental group who were familiar with the types of free grammatical cases was more compared to the control group. It was also found that familiarizing language learners with the free grammatical case will help them distinguish between the grammatical functions of adverbs and the grammatical functions of verbs.

One of the points that has not been paid attention to in the subject of rhyme and line is what is the difference between the use of rhyme and line in different literary genres and whether the poet in different literary types (epic, lyrical and didactic) uses Has he commented on the difference in its literary type from the rhyme and the line or not? Although important works such as al-Mujajm Shams Qais Razi and al-Khawaja Nasir al-Din Tusi"s poetry standards and other prominent works in this field are important as the initiators of these sciences, none of these works have mentioned the important relationship between rhyme, row and their use in a specific literary type. and the main focus of these works has always been on rhyme and line as a means of creating music. This research has investigated, analyzed and compared 1279 verses from the two love poems of Weiss and Ramin with the love story of Bijan and Manijeh in the discussion of rhyme and line. The purpose of this research is to show the behavior of these two poets with rhyme and line and their use in lyrical and epic genres.

The research method in this study is descriptive and analytical, which was done in a library form by studying sources, taking notes and classifying the materials.

The special place of rhyme and line in the structure of verse helps to understand and analyze it in the history of various developments of Persian poetry, and by examining these influential elements in verse, we can get valuable results in the analysis of verses and the poet"s style of verse making. He achieved in his type and literary style.

In this research, by extracting the rhymes and rows of verses of these two love stories, we showed that Ferdowsi, unlike Fakhruddin Asad Gorgani, uses rhymes and nominal rows in his verses, and deliberately moves his syntax away from standard syntax, and although a story He narrates a romance, but in no part of his work, he does not leave the epic genre and the unnatural language, while on the other hand, Gorgani is loyal to the natural language by using more current rhymes.

Arabic syntax or grammar is considered one of the most important subjects in the undergraduate course as well as in additional courses for non-Arabic speakers. The way of teaching this subject has always been mixed with many difficulties, and students and learners always point to the strictness and uniformity of the rules, dry and inactive teaching methods, and issues like this. In this essay, while emphasizing on separating the two categories of scientific syntax and educational syntax, traditional strategies have been mentioned and their merits and demerits have been considered. In addition to that, new strategies have been proposed for the use of professors, and their advantages and disadvantages have also been investigated. The result of this research is that we should pay more attention to its practical aspects while avoiding teaching unnecessary syntactical topics, and use new and collaborative strategies to improve the teaching-learning process.Teaching Arabic language, syntax, teaching strategies

Undoubtedly, one who pursues linguistic research finds that these studies pursue a particular goal in every way. Based on this, ancient linguistic studies were more religious in nature, and they were summarized in the preservation of the Holy Qur'an and its avoidance. Among these studies, it is possible to point out that the Mu'tazilite sectarian studies have not convinced the apparent aspects of their language, according to their eternal thinking.They believed that a large part of the language needed to be interpreted to understand the author's intentions. And Zamzakhri, who was at the head of the Mu'tazilite viewpoint, did not pay enough attention to the apparent aspect of the text, syntax, mere, sound, mementos, etc., but he Blended its rational and non-linguistic views of the apparent aspect of language. Therefore, by adopting a descriptive and analytical method, this paper tries to analyze and interpret the syntactic views of Zamakhshari in the commentary of the schisma, which is sometimes a mixture of reason, by bringing Quranic evidence from Sura Āl ʻImrān's. Keywords Zamakhshari- apparent texture of language- rational view- syntax- syntactic criterion.    IntroductionIn the past, the prevailing method in critical studies has been a position between descriptive and normatif. According to the ancients, normatif does not mean the loss of the descriptive method, but for them it means normatif method mixed with the descriptive, and of course their approach is more following the philosophers. Greek is like Aristotle and Plato, and they take help from them in critical studies.What is noteworthy in this context is that Criterionist linguists start from generalities and leave details to create rules and hypotheses,and they basically rely on the rule and avoid description and for what is out of the norm, they resort to interpretation, and if they encounter a problem in interpretation, they consider it rare and rare. (Zoin, 23:1986).according to this, Zamakhshri as a result Intellectual and Mu'tazili teachings He is inclined towards a normatif method and the apparent level of his language does not convince him. But He argues that when the meaning is linked to the divine words, the "Holy Qur'an", its complexity increases and the apparent meaning is not enough for us. Because he believes that the objective theory, whose goal is to identify the essential with the divine nature, It occupies the place of the sign. And this means that Qur'anic text based on the meaning related to the signifier The non-appearance of the language is arranged. It is from this point of view that Zamakhshari argues that the meaning of the sentence is not determined only by the appearance of the language. Rather, there is a set of codified laws among the Arabs Familiarity with them is necessary to extract the desired meaning and avoid neglecting the meaning. Whatever it is, its meaning is not as clear as some think Rather, "every word is surrounded by shades of different psychological and emotional meanings And it gives temporary colors of emotions and imagination, which expresses its expressive value. (Zoin, 1986, 92) So Zamakhshari tends to "a descriptive method mixed with a criterion to determine the meaning of the Qur'an" (Al-Juvini, 1961: 95).ConclusionWe conclude that Zamakhshari is the one who puts syntax in front of his eyes, but when he feels the need to achieve the desired meaning, he discards it and takes help from rational analysis or what is outside the text. Therefore, it can be said that standard syntax is mixed with rational reason according to Zamakhshari. And it has a great impact on extracting meaning. He acts rightly by relying on reason, and sometimes he may act arbitrarily or as if he made a mistake.

In different periods of the history of Persian literature, the art of conflict or answer has been prevalent among poets, especially famous poets of each period. Some of these controversies were confined to the realm of imitation, and others were able to achieve a desirable degree of technical value through the innovations of their creators. A study of books of poems which is called divan, shows that the relationship of poets sometimes occupies a significant part of their poems. One .e.g. of this relationship is the technique of conflict or response. One of these conflicts is the conflict between Homam tabrizi and Saadi shirazi. Examining sources such as Tarikh Gozideh, Muns al-Ahrar, Tazkira al-Shoara, etc. shows that the debate between Homam and Saadi has a history among the ancients. Some of the oldest sources that have mentioned Homam's conflicts with Saadi which is addressed in this research are:The jong that was kept in the library of Lala Ismail in Turkey and was written in 741-742 AH by several scribes, the safine of Shams Haji which was written in 741 AH by a man named Muhammad known as Shams Haji and is now kept in the NafezPasha Library of Turkey and an ancient manuscript from the Divan of Shams Tabrizi, which was written in 739 AH by Ali Shah ibn Ali Sa'iq Esfahani and is now kept in the library of Ayatollah Marashi in Qom. In these manuscripts, the contradictions of Homam and Saadi are explicitly mentioned. For example, the jong of Lala Isma'il has mentioned the sonnets of Sa'di and Homam as the "Contradictions" between Sa'di and Homam. Also in the old Divan of Homam, some of Homam's sonnets and Saadi's sonnets have came together. In the present study, based on these contradictions in the mentioned manuscript and with the help of statistical method, we tried to enumerate the similarities and differences between Homam and Saadi by comparing the domains of vocabulary and syntax. Indeed this thesis was investigated the words construction, non-persian words, verbs construction, particles, deletion, shifting pronouns, presentation and delay of sentence components. At last, we examined the lexical structures of each and found that Saadi paid more attention to the types of words and the variety and novelty of the lexical structures than to Homam. We found that the syntactic structures in Saadi's sonnets are more solid. For example Saadi has more deletations than Homam which made his poetry more concise. Also Homam moved the parts of the sentence more than saadi which caused it to deviate from the standard syntax. Also, statistical charts are drawn using Excel software to display the results of the research in one place.

During the second half of the 20th century, looking to the language as the basic raw material of the literature, leads to overlapping some of the achievements of Discourse Analysis and Sociocriticism. In fact, getting an internal approach to the literary text in order to degage its sociality, and focusing on the discourse in the context of social involved situation, these are the common bases of the two analytic methods. Therefore, Pierre V. Zima introduces his approach as the “sociology of the text” and believes that the social questions could appear through the languages, sociolects and discourses, as well as the lexicon, semantics and syntax could have a social function. In the present article, we aim to analyze the social function of the semantics and the syntax inside the novel Ace Heart by Moniru Ravanipur to find out the interdiscursive relation between the text and the surrounding society.

The structure of sentences and the order of words are two representative factors of the syntactic style of an author which are highly useful in explaining his personal style. Understanding the personal style of each author can be very helpful for readers in understanding the themes of his/her texts, knowing the character of the author and identifying his/her personal characteristics. Ghaem Magham Farahani is one of the greatest writers of the Qajar period whose personal style distinguishes him from his contemporary writers.
 


Using the approach and theory of layer stylistics and the method of discourse analysis, the researchers have undertaken the study of syntactic level of the 45th letter in Ghaem Magham Farahani’s Monasha’at. They have attempted to identify the connection between meaning and the syntactic level in this text, and to explain to the readers what the syntactic factors are in this letter and how the syntactic structure of the text helps its theme.


One of the most famous literary figures in Qajar period is Ghaem Magham Farahani, the Grand Vizier to Mohammad Shah Qajar. Thanks to his talent, artistry, and dedication, Ghaem Magham managed to write about the issues of his time in his Monsha’at with the use of a colloquial language and a literary texture which is more often than not compared with Sa’di’s Gulistan, since like Sa’di’s masterpiece, it is full of Arabic words, anecdotes, and proverbs. When these factors are combined with folklore literature, the result is a pleasant, attractive and dynamic prose. In a word, “Ghaem Magham is the Sa’di of his time” (Shamisa, 2014: 282). In Ghaem Magham’s prose, one can distinguish three styles: simple, intermediate and complicated, which have been very common in the previous periods. The prose contains Quranic verses, religious fables and hadiths which are signs of prolixity in texts (Khatibi, 2007: 58). One can also find elements of conciseness in sentences and the avoidance of complexity which are manifestations of simple and straightforward style (Rastegar Fasaei, 2018: 243). However, the most frequent style used in his writings is the simple style which is a recreation of the ancient simple and straightforward prose (Rahimian, 2008: 12), since his texts are intended to be simple and devoid of complexities in style and meaning.
It is the aim of stylistics to study the characteristics of texts with the attention to different linguistic periods, and then analyze these characteristics in relation to the authors who have used them in their texts. Accordingly, by analyzing the works of a writer or a period, researchers of stylistics can reveal many aspects about the texts, such as the perspective of the author, the social condition of the period, the discourse of the age, the orientation of the writer, creativities or imitations in the style of the writer, the author’s ideology and the dominant ideology of the period. However, due to the high number of these stylistic characteristics in the texts, the researchers have divided them into 5 categories and study each category independently. These five levels are phonetic, lexical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels. Each of these levels are again divided into several sublevels which eventually make up the meta-levels when combined with each other. Syntax is the study of the relationship between linguistic forms in sentences, structure, order, syntagmatic and paradigmatic levels. The analysis of the syntactic level makes the reader capable of discovering the relationship between the syntactic structure and the thematic structure of a text. Some of the issues discussed on this level are the structure of the sentences, the length of the sentences, the order of sentences, moods in adverbs, adjectives and verbs, the verb tenses, adjuncts, the use of Arabic words and expressions. The researchers have undertaken the analysis of these elements in letter number 45 of Monsha’at by Mirza Abol-Ghasem Farahani.
 


The structure of sentences and clauses and the order of words in any text are representatives of the grammatical and syntactic style of that text which eventually lead the reader or the researcher of the linguistic behaviors to identifying the personal style of the writer. The analysis of the items under study showed that there is a relationship between the syntactic principles and the themes of the text. In this research, we studied the length of the sentences and analyzed the relationship between sentences from different perspectives. The findings showed that short sentences are used more than long sentences in this letter, which means that Ghaem Magham has used them for accelerating the expression of his thoughts. Short sentences are proper vehicles for transferring the purpose of the writer to the audience; however, whenever necessary, the writer has used longer sentences to explain and describe more. Therefore, the high frequency of short and concise sentences with independent thoughts in each sentence is indicative of the preference of meaning over verbosity in the mind of the writer and, as mentioned before, accelerates the expression of meaning. From among the four types of links in the sentences of this letter, the two types of equivalent and intertwined are more frequent than the other two, dependent and independent links. The use of these links brings more coherence and stronger relationship between the parts of the text and their meaning. The study of moods in this letter led to identifying Ghaem Magham’s ideology and individual character. In this regard, the findings show that in verbs, the indicative mood are more frequently used than imperative and subjunctive moods. This delineates that the writer of the letter has intended to narrate the incidents and phenomena; therefore, it reveals Ghaem Magham’s certainty in his text. The study of the mood in adverbs show his close relationship with the incidents; while the study of the mood in adjectives show the writer’s tendency toward different factors and people which usually express his power and certainty.

The aim of this paper was to find out what kind of possible linguistic changes may occur during translating a certain English text into Persian. For this reason, two passages, each one composed of approximately fourteen lines, were translated. Passage Num.1 was chosen from the book MAN AND HIS WORLD, and passage Num.2 from act one, scene one of the play ROMEO AND JULIET by Shakespeare. The motivation behind this was to study the linguistic/grammatical behavior of the two languages toward developing the same literary and half-scientific ideas. In addition, we tried to meet the goal from a contrastive analysis point of view. After careful comparison of the original texts with their translations, considerable differences were observed. These differences were grouped into three major levels: morphology, syntax, and semantics. In the end, based on the limitation of the passages, it was concluded that various linguistic behaviors can be observed in the levels already mentioned, while translating a text from English into Persian. Finally, based on and within the limitation of the passages selected, it was concluded that various linguistic behaviors can be observed in the levels already mentioned, during translating a text from English into Persian.On the other hand, this article is based on the contrastive analysis hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the researcher, with the tools at his disposal, finds the possibility to correctly describe the two languages ​​in question and use the resulting descriptions to determine the existing contrasts or differences between two languages. Learning a second language basically requires overcoming the differences between the two linguistic systems of the first language and the target language.

A constituent is a chain or structure made up of one or more words, which function as a whole i.e. a single unit, in syntactic operations. Almost all syntactic operations are applied to constituents. Any failure to detect them properly will not only lead to structural ambiguity but also make the analysis of the syntactic processes virtually impossible. It is here that a strong need is felt for a special device to detect the structures. Constituency tests are tools applied in the formal syntactic tradition and hence, in Minimalism, for the detection of constituents and the borderlines between them. So far, constituency tests and their applications in syntactic analyses have been substantially discussed in English resources on syntax (Radford, 1997; 2006; 2009; Carnie, 2001; Kim & Sells, 2007; Tallerman, 2011), but they have only been occasionally and briefly addressed in Persian sources although constituent detection is one of the first steps in fundamental syntactic investigations.Tests such as coordination, ellipsis, topicalization clefting, sentence fragment etc. have been frequently discussed in terms of how successful they are in detecting main categorical constituents. The results show that these tests are not absolute devices for the detection of borders between constituents. In other words, not all of them are successful in detecting all constituents. On the other hand, their efficiency may vary cross-linguistically. For example, as Hosseini-Maasoum (2022) puts it, a test like coordination is equally successful in Persian and English while a test like topicalization may be more efficient in English than in Persian.

"The Stories of MaŠdi Galin Ḫānom" is a collection of 110 Iranian folk tales written by Elwell-Sutton. These stories, with their cultural themes and special linguistic features, are an irreplaceable work among folk tales, and no independent research has been done on the linguistic stylistic features of these stories so far. The purpose of this study is to investigate the characteristics of the linguistic style of these stories at three phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels.

The study method is descriptive and analytical. After probing the field of Persian prose, popular cultures, historical grammar and stylistic books, relevant data were extracted and categorized.

The linguistic features of the stories have made the book a valuable work in the field of stylistics. Turkish and foreign words, folk proverbs and allusions, word archaism, syntactic archaism, phonological processes, colloquial verb phrases, grammatical aberration, application of classifiers, catch phrases, indicators, lexical innovations, rhyming reduplication, initiating verbs, oaths, insults, etc. are evident in these stories. At the phonetic level, there are assimilations with the least frequency and metatheses with the highest frequency.

According to the background of the Persian language and using the old words that exist in the popular dialects of the Iranian people, it is possible to solve the problems of word formation and word selection in the Persian language to some extent. It is also possible to use their equivalents in the vernacular instead of the non-Persian words used in the language. These words can be considered as a support for Persian language and this linguistic capacity can be used. For example, instead of the Arabic words like massaneh (bladder), moattal kardan (delay), qollab (hook), Turkish qablameh (pot), French commode (chest of drawers), French bascule (big weighing machine), their Persian equivalents such as abgah, lang kardan, changak, komajdan, ganjeh, barkool, and the like can be used respectively.

Hafez is not a poet like Khajoo that apply a word in his poem, merely in order to create double entendre, and He is not follow Khaghani's way in paling the grace of poem through abundance of scientific expression. Rather his poem is balanced synthesis of scientific aspect of word with poetical dimension of speech. Hi use this rhetorical figure (ihām) on the basis of his detailed Knowledge about scientific texts. So it is necessary to survey the series of couplets which have scientific background, considering every aspect. Our hypothesis is that, there is no sort of conventional word-play thing in such couplets. Although most of our medieval knowledge in comparison to modern sciences are almost nothing, in most cases the speech of poets like Khaghani and Hafez is exactly according to the facts of those ages. In this paper as an instance, meanwhile paying a complete attention to the variant readings and Hafez poetic art also by getting help from common scientific texts of the Hafez age, we have critically edited some couplets of Hafez. If this method receive verification from Hafezian scholars, we can be hopeful that it can be effective and solving in other cases of Divan-e Hafez.

So far Hafezian scholars have enumerated various factors in creation of different variants of Hafez poems. The nature of different variants at the first step is studied considering this aspects: whether these reforms were made by the poet himself? Have the scribes had any influence in its formation? Or other factors than these two have been the source of different variants? Hafez researchers believe that the most important determinant of different variants is not the scribes errors and mistakes, but they are related to the following agents: Unwillingness of Hafez to collect his poems The evolutionary rudiments of his aesthetical points of view The socio-political situations of his time Changing of individual and particular cases into general We can expand this list by two important points: The evolution of Hafez knowledge: Perhaps the evolution of Hafez knowledge in different branches of science of his time has been a reason for the substitution of some of the variants. Hafez textual researches: This factor can be the one of main and the most effective reasons of different variants. Therefore intertextuality will be the authentic method in critical edition of Hafez’s poem. Goals: “The establishment of a reliable text” of Divan-e Hafez -like his poem and character- is an exception in the world of text edition. For edition of Divan-e Hafez it is not the scientific method to collate one particular copy of divan with other manuscripts and note the variants in the footnotes without any critical review. On the contrary, for each different variant several explanatory essays are necessary, these notes along with paying attention to the different versions of manuscripts and exploring aesthetical and rhetorical aspects of Hafez’s poem should be assessed totally, and only in this case -maybe- it is possible to perceive Hafez’s mind and language. This burden is heavy enough to be carried by only one person, that is to say it is necessary for the scholars to research the various layers of Hafez’s multiplanar poem from a special angle where the differences exist. This article is -we hope- a small step in that direction.

In process of creation of art works, Hafez does not believe in “beginning from nothing”. He is the poet of selections and motivations. Instead of using his mind power for creation of art works at the same level, as the poets before his time, through literary critical criterions, which he has learned at the schools of rhetoric and poetic specialists, he strains “Persian/Arabic texts in literary as well as in scientific fields” and as an eloquent poet, selects what he approves of mentally and linguistically, and recreates by exceeding artistic genius values, his knowledge and reflecting incidents of his time. In the process of researching the textual relationships between Hafez poem and Persian/Arabic poetry/prose as well as scientific texts, it turns out that throughout his life time, he has been researching on these resources. There are evidences in the Divan-e Hafez which show that some of the different variants have a root in his researches in scientific texts. For example: حیلت / حالت / طاقت کوه اندوه فراقت به چه حیلت بکشد حافظ خسته که از ناله تنش چون نالی است (Hafez,1387Š: 129) Varian Readings in Hafez’ Qazals (Neisari, 1385Š vol.1:291): حیلت :based on 31 manuscripts→ oldest one: Hagia Sophia dated 813 A.H./1410 A.D. حالت :based on 2 manuscripts→ oldest one: Khalkhali dated 827 A.H./1424 A.D. طاقت :based on 2 manuscripts→ oldest one: dated 817-34 A.H./1414-31 A.D. حیلت:based on The Oldest Manuscript of Divan-i Hafiz dated 801A.H./1398-99A.D. (Hafez,1394Š:14) QB: حالت‖PNSEJ: حیلت Hilat (حیلت) in this line is a single word with a double meaning (=ihām) “obvious” and “far-fetched”: 1. Means or Plan 2. Scientific term applied in the knowledge of ingenious mechanical devices (=ilm-ul-hiyalعلم‌الحیل) that refers to the ancient form of modern mechanical engineer.

Although Hafez poem is clear, it has a deep structure which a thorough understanding of his poem and deciphering his “dense poetic language” would not be possible unless through Intertextuality. This principle can be true in editing his poem. In such cases we should use the method of adding up a series of rational, eloquent and narrative reasons for the preference of different variants and critical editions. It is necessary to be noted that while we emphasize Hafez textual researches, we do not ignore his independent individual and original artistic creativity in the formation and completion of his poems.

In the emergence of Abdul Qaher Jurjani's theory of "Nazm" (=order), many scholars and grammarians such as: Sibuyeh, Jahiz, Mobarred, Abu Hilal Askari and others have been influential. Abdul Qaher learned syntax through the books of Abu Ali Farsi. This issue raises the hypothesis of the influence of Abu Ali more than any other scientists in the emergence of this theory. There are reasons that show that Abu Ali Farsi influenced Jurjani and his views played a direct role in the development of the theory of "Nazm". In this article, an attempt is made to investigate and explain Abu Ali Farsi's influence on Jurjani and his position in the theory of order from various aspects, especially syntactic, lexical and contextual, relying on the descriptive-analytical method. The results of the research show that Abu Ali Farsi had an undeniable influence on Abdul Qaher and has a high position in the emergence and maturity of Jurjani's "Nazm" theory. In Abu Ali's view, "Nazm" means composing words and adding words to each other based on a special method and order that leads to the speaker's intention and goal. Abu Ali used the syntax out of the situational and dictionary meanings and used it in a practical way through the context of words, and Jurjani continued and completed this way and showed it in the form of the theory of "Nazm".

The present article examines diachronically the syntactic behavior of the verb " iltaqā " and the conditional terms "ʔiðā " and "' law " in Arabic newspapers. For this purpose, newspapers with mass circulation including Al-Ahram, Al-Masry Al-yawm, and Al-Youm7 were selected due to their longevity and strong prose, which is a model for the writing and structure of other Arab newspapers. Data were analyzed from 1998 to 2020 using field research, a corpusbased study with a descriptive-analytic approach. Data analysis showed that modern written Arabic has undergone significant syntactic changes. Among the results obtained are; The verb ' iltaqā ' is no longer used with a ' preposition ' letter or container 'maʕa' as in the past, and recently the use of such attachments with the verb has become rare. 'ʔiðā ' and ' law ' are conditional terms which are used interchangeably, while ' law ' is a condition of unrealistic refusal. The letters 'fa' or 'la' are used as the condition result of ' law ' and 'ʔiðā ' regardless of syntactic conditions and rules. Examining the morpho-syntactic changes in modern written Arabic can help with teaching Arabic based on the target language as well as the correct translation of Arabic texts into Persian

One of the topics of interest to structuralists is paying attention to binary opposition. They know the foundation of existence and its cognition as the realization of these oppositions . Most of artworks are based on contrast and opposition; Bad versus good, heaven versus earth, youth versus aging, existence versus non-existence, etc. These two poles have never existed independently and are based on the opposition of two poles. Neighboring confrontations are a term associated with the science of syntactic meanings. The term, which is a combination of the two, is one of the hidden arts in Nezamy poetry. In this article, based on the theory of syntactic meanings, an attempt has been made to study and analyze various constructions and its various patterns; These patterns include: adjoining adverbs in a sentence with the same grammatical identity, adjoining adverbs with dissimilar grammatical identities, inflectional and non-adverbial antonyms, implicit adjoining adverbs, music of adjoining adverbs, and so on.The combination of these patterns with other rhetorical and aesthetic elements adds to their semantic capacity and rhetorical goodness. Such diversity has made military poetry more dynamic in terms of rhetoric, language and meaning. The high frequency of these confrontations has led to a stylistic feature in Nezamy poetry. In this research, all-round confrontations of introduction and syntactic structure of the verses that include this art have been analyzed in two poems: Khosrow, Shirin, Lily and Majnoon Nezamy.

Persian-English bilingual linguistics thesaurus has not been developed yet. The linguistics Thesaurus is used in organizing and indexing scientific document information, standardizing vocabulary, searching and retrieving information in linguistic databases, and research related to linguistics and computational linguistics. The most important challenge in producing and compiling a Persian-English bilingual linguistics thesaurus is designing a concept map of linguistics. Finding suitable equivalents in Persian for English terms as well as the existence of different views and schools in the field of this science is one of the difficulties of this research. The presence of Persian language linguists in different fields of linguistics and the existence of numerous English and Persian sources in the field of linguistics, as well as knowledge and experience of designing concept maps and compiling a thesaurus based on it at Irandac Research Institute, was a great opportunity to designed and compiled a conceptual map of linguistics in a general level . This map was designed using specialized English and Persian terms in the field of linguistics and according to the divisions of linguistics, so that in other projects, a Persian-English bilingual linguistics thesaurus could be developed based on it.

One of the important expressive features of the Holy Quran is the selection of meaningful words and the arrangement of meaningful phrases, each of which has a prominent role in conveying the purposes of revelation. Among these words, the word "nasiya" meaning forehead, which is mentioned in a real and virtual semantic circle as a singular and plural form in four verses of the Holy Quran for various purposes, has a syntactic and expressive aesthetic aspect. Among these words, the word "nasiya" meaning forehead, which is mentioned in a real and virtual semantic circle as a singular and plural form in four verses of the Holy Quran for various purposes, has a syntactic and expressive aesthetic aspect. Each of these phrases has several examples that commentators have explained and interpreted. These words, while explaining the humiliation of arrogant people in this world and the hereafter or the control of creatures by God in terms of expression: permissible, metaphor and irony, as well as the numerous positions of the Arabs According to the previous and later phrases, they have the center of this research in a descriptive-analytical manner. It seems that the word "nasi" and its plural "nasi" can be an irony in the sense of humiliation, subjugation, and even a sign of honor. Also, in the singular and also permissible rational context, it can be mentioned as a part (instruction) and the whole (human) will.