جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "شناخت" در نشریات گروه "فلسفه و کلام"

Studying the intellectual foundations and the position of philosophy and theology in the conceptualization of God among philosophers and theologians, can clarify their approach regarding the issue of God. How is the issue of God studied in the view of al-Ṭūsī and ʿAllāma Ḥillī- two "Ḥilla" theologians- according to their intellectual and philosophical-theological foundations and the position of philosophy and theology in their conceptualization of God? To what extent is their approach to the issue of God similar or different? In this article, we will study this problem from two aspects of form and method-content. As for the form, we will deal with the arrangement of the contents in their works according to their philosophical and theological foundations and the perception they have of God accordingly, and as for the method and content, we will discuss the method of knowing and proving God and explaining His attributes (both method and content). Al-Ṭūsī believes in a philosophical God and ʿAllāma Ḥillī, with a more inner-religious perspective, speaks of a religious-philosophical God. Regarding the content, in the method of proving the existence of God in the conceptualization of God, their opinions are similar, while in the formal structure and the issue of knowing God, they are different according to their intellectual foundations.

In the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, some scholars in the West, influenced by the Enlightenment worldview, believed that the cause of each incident could be found in nature. They took into consideration the existing primitive religions to find mundane origin of religion. They also discovered that some matters such as Animism, Fetishism, Manichaeism, Totemism have been common principles among the existing primitive religions and each of them knew one of these matters as the beginning and origin of religion, but because of their specific worldview, intentionally or unintentionally, ignored this idea that belief in one God is more than anything else a common belief among primitive peoples, so the origin and beginning of the religion may be monotheism. This theory was presented at that time by christian pastor, Wilhelm Schmidt, but was ignored by others. The results of research that Western anthropologists have gained from these religions can provide a lot of evidence in favor of Schmidt's theory.

This study aimed to clarify the aspects of human epistemology and its educational implications within Immanuel Kant's philosophical framework. The researchers utilized descriptive qualitative content analysis, specifically employing MAYRING's inductive model to collect information. After analyzing the data, the obtained findings revealed that regarding human epistemology and its educational implications, Kant emphasizes the role of consciousness, senses, experience, and reason as sources of knowledge. The research highlights the recognition of human beings' capacity for change, aiming to improve individuals within the process of societal transformation. It underscores the role of experience as a source of knowledge and the contribution of successive generations' experiences in human upbringing, gradual habit formation instead of abrupt elimination, the elimination of rewards and punishments in education, skepticism towards them, equality and sameness of human freedom and nature, resistance against elitism and human exploitation, and the non-influence of values in education. It emphasizes the responsibility of individuals in their educational journey. Kant's perspective on the philosophy of education is based on fulfilling one's duty, which essentially stems from the practical reason and pure conscience of every human being. Regarding education, Kant believes in the elevated position of education and the potential and educability of human beings. It is important to note that Kant's perspective on human beings is humanistic and non-religious. He does not consider humans as inherently valuable or religious beings. Therefore, his educational orientation cannot be interpreted solely through ethical approaches.

The perspective of illumination means the perspective of the role of illumination and grace of the higher world in the existence of the world and creatures, as well as in the search for knowledge of man, is an important point of view in Islamic and non-Islamic ontology and epistemology. A group of Muslim and non-Muslim philosophers and mystics have raised their epistemological issues around illumination. This article tries to analyze the concept of cognitive illumination and its important elements with a descriptive-analytical and inferential method, in order to understand the identity of this type of illumination (in the realm of intellect and super-intellect) and discover its common elements in Islamic illumination perspectives and answer this question: What is cognitive illumination or illumination in the field of cognition and what elements play a role in it? Based on this analysis, material and sensory illumination plays a large role in illumination views, and explanation of non-material illumination is done through it. One of the common elements and aspects of these views is the centrality of light and light radiation, and the other is belief in God, who is in the role of the illuminator. About what is illumination, two views can be extracted: 1. Illumination is the introduction to knowledge; 2. Illumination is related to the stage of realization of knowledge. In illumination views, the main issue is the appearance of light from the top to the lowest levels, and the revelation of the known (truth) to the illuminated one (knower subject). This truth is either light - immaterial light - or it is likened to light, or due to the activity of some kind of rational light it becomes recognizable to humans. Among the results of illuminative knowledge is the knowledge of the illuminant to the illumined, and the knowledge of the illumined to the illuminant.

AbstractThe research aims to investigate cognition from the perspective of transcendental wisdom and cognitive psychology with a descriptive-analytical method and is an answer to the main question that "cognition in the Sadrai school and cognitive psychology, what identities and features are compatible or incompatible". Beyond the physical dimension of cognition, Sadra paid attention to other dimensions of human existence that are related to cognition, and by dividing cognition into presence and acquisition, he gave it an abstract dimension and argued. He proves the immunity of science and human knowledge. In cognitive psychology, only the physical dimension of cognition is mentioned, and this problem is analyzed from the physical method and paying attention to human experiential structures. Transcendental wisdom considers sense, heart, intellect, and the Qur'an to be the means of cognition, and the true knowledge of man is connected to revelation. Cognitive psychology considers the means of cognition to be only the five senses, which are related to the human nervous system. Consciousness, attention, language memory and decision-making are among the issues related to cognition. In the transcendental wisdom, imagination, while being a foundation for the creation of reason, is used in later stages as a tool to connect to the world of imagination, which has a dimension beyond the physical dimension; But in cognitive psychology, imagination is only a process of the nervous system to create images in the

Undoubtedly, the problem of human beings and the recognition of his nature are considered to be the main concerns of Kant. This concern, before he began to write his critical philosophy, led him to research subjects related to human nature, and eventually led him to consider humanity as an answer to the main philosophical question. Kant distinguishes between two types of research on the nature of mankind: the pragmatic research that speaks of it in his ‘anthropology from a pragmatic point of view’, and transcendental research that is called ‘transcendental anthropology’, a term that he did not explain in any of his works. But what does Kant mean by this term and what does this concept mean about humans? In this article we are trying to examine two aspects of the term, the anthropological and transcendental, to clarify Kant’s mind and verify his definition of the human being. This study shows that Kant tries to examine the mental faculties of human beings to understand a priori what can be achieved about him. This study shows that, first, man is nothing but the origin of the laws of nature and can understand the fundamental laws of nature. Secondly, what to do is the moral law imposed upon him by his wit. And finally, what would have hoped is nothing more than that he realizes his ends through moral law and changes the natural world into the moral world.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the concepts related to learning in Wittgenstein's writings and examples of famous and important metaphors that he brought in his works with the intention of objectifying the concepts. "Intermediate circle" in cognition. The method has a practical objective and a qualitative and analytical approach. According to Wittgenstein, metaphor is more than a rhetorical tool and as a connecting link, it has the ability to stimulate the enlightenment of the learner's mind towards the realization of desired learning. In Wittgenstein's works, metaphor can be recognized as a kind of possibility and framework for understanding the forms of life and a basis for an agreement in which learning takes place in practice. Metaphors create a world made of language games; arising from the forms of life in which the teacher and learner achieve mutual understanding makes learning possible. Wittgenstein's metaphors are the underlying factor of objectification of concepts, the necessary platform for educational models that promote learning in an effective way through agreement on the forms of life.

Cognitive science is the study of the brain, mind, intelligence, and related processes. The two main tasks of this science are: 1. To produce models that describe the function of the human brain and cognitive functions, 2. To compare the complex three-factor of the mind, brain and computer. The main and dominant hypothesis of this science is that thinking is a representative and computational phenomenon, and of course this hypothesis has been criticized by Western scholars. Using analytical-rational method, the present article seeks to explain the relationship between cognitive science and Islamic philosophy and show that some common principles and approaches of cognitive science, including: 1. materialism and naturalism of mind or soul, 2. exclusivism in experimental and scientific methods in the studies on mind, 3. determinism in human actions, 4. relativism of cognition, 5. materialism of cognition, are all in conflict with the psychology and epistemology in Islamic philosophy. However, such contrasts should not be considered negative, but rather in a positive way, it can be understood that cognitive scientists need to pay more attention to the rational issues of Islamic philosophy, and conversely, researchers of Islamic philosophy need to consider the findings of the cognitive science.

This article aims to review and critique Kant's philosophy of mind, its impact on contemporary philosophy of mind, also its impact and relation to functionalism. Kant's influence on philosophy is based on the answers and methods he uses to explain the mechanism of human knowledge. The Copernican revolution of Kant refers to the change in epistemological direction of the object to the subject, for the correct understanding of the object. This approach has had important effects on contemporary philosophy of mind. Now our goal is to explore some of these effects.

Our study method in this article is evaluate these effects in the field of contemporary philosophy of mind and especially, contemporary functionalism.

Kant attempts to explain the mechanism of human cognition by considering the mind as a structured thing that has some cognitive faculties, including the faculties of sense, understanding, and reason. In brief, the effects of such a mechanism in the contemporary philosophy of mind can be expressed in the following cases: (1) The need for a necessary structure of thought and experience. (2) The relationship between certain forms of consciousness and self-consciousness; and (3) excluding the Cartesian self. (4)The separation between sense and understanding is considered as the rise of the subjective matter from a physical foundation, and it indicates the hard problem of consciousness, that is, experience or phenomenal consciousness.

It is not possible to see the influence of Kant's philosophy of mind on the contemporary philosophy of mind as answers or even solutions, but as a way of thinking about problems. Kant's solutions have two characteristics, disregarding them will lead to a misunderstanding of his philosophy. First, Kant has expressed his philosophy of mind in a transcendental form. Taking him out of his vital form certainly leaves some of the most significant aspects of his philosophy behind. Secondly, his approaches are presented in a historical context. For instance, we should consider Kant's statement on the structures of the mind to be a metaphysical mechanism, and his perspective on causation is basically meaningful in a historical context. Admittedly, many of the problems raised in contemporary philosophy were discussed in Kant's philosophy, but the progress and transformation that occurs in these concepts cannot be attributed to Kant. The functionalist interpretation of Kant is possible, but it is in conflict with the most crucial teachings of Kant, which are architecture and the transcendental method. Such a reading excludes many aspects of an individual's mental life, and is based on a purely formal similarity.

In his philosophical structure, Descartes intended to organize, on the basis of mathematics, an efficient method of certainty for research and philosophy. The Mathesis is a body of universal and necessary truths of order and connection between ideas. According to Descartes' epistemology, man has become a researcher and discoverer who must discover himself. For Descartes, certain knowledge is possible, and in his structural cognitive style, action is a function of the form, while Dewey's cognitive style is a function in which form is a function of action and behavior. Examining the consequences of Darwinian views of the world, Dewey rejects Descartes' view: The question of the possibility of human knowledge has been fundamentally wrong. Dewey, by looking again at the absolute, the unconditional, and the certain, in philosophy, sees it only as a means to use if it results in success. Philosophy is not merely a mental organization of eternal and absolute truth, but a technology, method, and technique to be a means for social reform, regulation, and improvement of human and societal behavior.

The pursuit for the premises of cognition urges a systematic separation of ontological and epistemological considerations. On the other hand, both the mundane (collective intellect) and divine (revelation) imprints on cognition are to be taken into account, which suggests a comparative study based on the philosophy of mind and religion.Present article provides a two dimensional model to classify and compare these views. The horizontal and vertical axes of this model respectively present the ontological and epistemological stands. In the epistemological axis, three faculties of cognition, namely sense, intellect, and intuition are listed, whereas the ontological axis lists three aspects of being, appearance and function of cognitive data. This encompasses nine approaches of the modern philosophy (dialectical, speculative, critical, positivistic, scientific, phenomenological, existential, hermeneutical, and aesthetical) as well as nine mainstreams in religious wisdom (theologians, dialecticians, sophists, ascetics, juristic, sages, commentators, mystics, and sufis). Though each of these currents has been the subject of uncountable discussions and articles, one-to-one correspondence has never been done, and such a comprehensive overview provides a clear vision of the human approach to the category of knowledge.

Baruch Spinoza, the rationalist philosopher of the seventeenth century, devoted special attention to knowledge and epistemology. In his philosophy, knowledge has types and classes, the most valid of which is intuitive knowledge, and from this point of view, he focused on intuition, its objects, and its features. This paper, studying the types of cognition in Spinoza’s thought, attempts to explain its meaning and the object. Furthermore, the article, based on two sorts of interpretations, shows that, in the development of Spinoza’s philosophy, the object of intuition changes. This variation is caused by passing Spinoza’s thought from the division of knowledge, based on the form in the TRE, to that division, based on content in Ethics and there are serious debates among interpreters about that. In both works, Spinoza’s intuition is inferential, immediate, and irregular. Although, in TRE, its object is attribute and mode, while in Ethics, it is only mode or the essence of a particular thing. Finally, we show that the realization of intuitive knowledge guarantees credible and efficient knowledge and leads to liberty and happiness as the main purpose of Spinoza's philosophy.

The concept of free will is one of the fundamental concepts in Western metaphysical tradition. Although there are some important signs regarding the origination of this concept in Greek classical philosophy and Middle Age philosophy, it was just at the beginning of the modern period that the role of free will in the interpretation of the world was more highlighted in the thoughts of each philosopher more than those of the previous one. It seems as if the role of rational knowledge has become gradually less important in this process while the role of free will has become more significant. Inspired by Heidegger, the author has tried to strengthen his standpoint by yielding more proofs than he has offered in order to examine the development of the concept of free will. In doing so, he starts with Descartes and, by investigating the views of Espinoza, Leibniz, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche, aims to analyze the quality of the development of this concept, particularly the relationship between the free will and knowledge in the modern period. The purpose is to show that the significance of free will for Schopenhauer and Nietzsche is not accidental, and the preliminary contexts of such a development had been previously and gradually paved by modern philosophers. The findings of this study indicate that, unlike the previous comments and interpretations, Nietzsche’s “will to power” is not a complement to a Schopenhaurian project but, rather, a complement to German idealism.

The cognitive dimension of man is expressed in the Qur'an with various concepts such as: knowledge, wisdom, thought, jurisprudence, poetry, sense, opinion, suspicion, lip, certainty, rationality, deliberation, contemplation, knowledge, wisdom, etc. Understanding the stages of formation of knowledge in humans is one of the issues whose correct understanding, in addition to knowledge, also helps to improve knowledge; Teaching and learning, in addition to the independent subject of human excellence, are the introduction to increasing faith and righteous deeds.

Method of Study: 

The research method used in this article is a research in the field of analytical-descriptive and library-type research, where the information collected through content analysis has been analyzed and descriptively analyzed the ten stages of human knowledge with an approach to verses and traditions.

The first stage of cognition takes place in the structure of "intelligence". In the process of reasoning, by receiving "knowledge" as a cognitive content, science becomes knowledge. The knowledge absorbed by the intellect is established in the structure of "dream". "Thinking" is a process that uses stored information to be used in the next step. "Dhikr" deals with recalling the knowledge stored in the heart. "Jurisprudence" transforms the information stored in the heart into faith with the help of desire. "Certainty", the evolved stage of faith, which in a new structure of the self, becomes wisdom. "Wisdom" is the result of the process of all intellectual and heart matters that are available to the soul to realize action.

The adaptation and transformation of wisdom with the truths of the world is one of the other functions created by the soul to connect the results obtained from human science with the truths of pure divine knowledge, which is created in the "truth" stage. In this article, we intend to examine the ten stages of human knowledge based on the verses of the Qur'an and the traditions of the infallible imams (a.s.) do.

The relationship between life and knowledge in the view of Plotinus and Sadr ol-Mote’allehin and the comparison between their perspectives are of importance due to the fact that the ontological connection between life and knowledge in the opinion of the two philosophers conveys their intellectual affinity. Contemplation in the view of Plotinus is a sort of general and pervasive knowledge that exists in all the stages of being; the idea or knowledge that is recognized as the sameness of life by Plotinus. In Sadr ol-Mote’allehin’s view, knowledge as well as life are not only subordinate to being but also its exact sameness. Therefore, knowledge and life have unity in existence. Belief in the sameness of life and knowledge as well as the creatures’ living and knowledgeable existence, Reduction of life into knowledge, and the common foundations of the ontological relationship between life and knowledge -sameness of their origin and end, their graded reality, their common source in nature, and the world’s living and knowledgeable existence- in the view of the two above philosophers, have paved the way for a comparison between their perspectives. The result of this comparison is finding intellectual affinity and consensus between the two philosophers about the type of relationship between life and knowledge.

At the beginning of his several works, Aristotle outlines briefly universal schema of knowledge as a natural and universal mental way which starts from what is clearer, prior and more knowable to us and leads to a knowledge which is clearer, prior and more knowable naturally and absolutely. For the generality of this structure, it would be a possibility to understand Aristotle’s attitude to the general structure of knowledge. Among several concepts in Aristotle, Arche (ἀρχή) could explain this structure because he believes knowing is beginning a way towards the principles of the object. Thus present article is an attempt to explain the knowledge schema and its two parts based on the analysis of two senses of Arche in the way of the knowing. From several senses of the Arche, two meaning i.e. our beginning and the object principle are in correspondence with two parts of knowledge i.e. more knowable to us and more knowable absolutely. Beginning of us is our pre-existence knowledge of the object which is more familiar to us and make possible the way of knowing and the principle of the object is the final point in the way of knowing which is more familiar simpliciter and necessitates knowledge.

"Certainty" occupies an important place in Wittgenstein’s epistemology: it does not belong to the category of knowledge but constitutes its foundation. In his view, knowledge boils down to language games, and language games are based on indubitable certainties. According to Wittgenstein, scepticism is meaningless, and if there is no certainty, then even doubt would be meaningless. Wittgesntein maintains that [relative] doubt and knowledge are epistemic categories, whereas absolute doubt and certainty are non-epistemic categories. Epistemic categories are meaningful and when expressed by means of statements could be either true or false. In contrast, non-epistemic categories are meaningless and when expressed by means of statements the properties of truth and falsehood do not apply to them. The aim of the present paper is two fold: 1- Providing an explanation of the status of certainty in comparison to categories such as doubt and knowledge in Wittgenstein’s thought; 2- Providing a critical assessment of Wittgenstein's approach to certainty through the prism of critical rationalism. The main arguments of the paper are as follows: 1. Although Wittgenstein considers certainty to be meaningless and therefore not on a par with epistemological categories, he regards it as an objective concept that functions as the foundation upon which all human knowledge is based; 2. Wittgenstein's efforts to show the objectivity of certainty have not been entirely successful, partly due to his reliance on a defective notion of ‘objectivity’ and partly as a result of the prominence he assigns to the category of ‘meaning’ at the expense of the category of ‘truth’.