جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « اشتغال زنان » در نشریات گروه « اقتصاد »

Human development indicators are one of the most important criteria for the development of societies. Since women make up half of the population of any society, their participation in development is very important. One of the most important fields of women's participation is economic participation. The current research has analyzed the policies of women's employment in Scandinavian countries (Sweden and Norway), Muslim countries (Turkey and Iran) and its consequences with a comparative policy research approach. The results show the greater participation of women in the economy of the Scandinavian countries, despite challenges such as the weakening of the family system in Sweden and the existence of restrictions such as the glass ceiling in Norway. The participation rate of women in the economy of Islamic countries is lower than that of Scandinavian countries. The important issue in Turkey is the high rate of people who are neither students nor employed (the highest rate among OECD countries). The rate of economic participation of educated women in Turkey (year 2018) is reported as 71% and for men as 89%, which shows the gender gap in this index. In Iran, higher education is one of the factors that facilitate the entry of women into the labor market and has led to a decrease in unemployment among urban women (3%) compared to rural women (1398). In Islamic countries, women's economic participation has been neglected; Therefore, the policies adopted in this field in Iran need to be reviewed.

The study investigates the intellectual and social foundations of managing society, with a specific focus on the role of women, and how these foundations have evolved over the four decades following the Islamic revolution in Iran. During this period, the demands and efforts of Iranian women in terms of employment and improving their economic status have undergone significant transformations. The importance of women's employment and their participation in various spheres as a means of generating income outside the family structure has allowed women to break away from traditional sources of authority. This shift has also provided women with a mediating role through which they assess themselves and their surrounding environment. While the broad outlines of economic policies have been outlined in long-term strategic documents over the past four decades, there have been various instances where governments have made substantial changes to previous policies in response to the evolving demands of the population. The study aims to address the question of which factors have influenced the changes in women's economic status and the direction in which these changes have occurred, considering the fluctuating trends in women's status and economic conditions since the Islamic revolution in Iran.

Method and theoretical framework:

The authors of this study have employed Anthony Giddens' theoretical framework of structuration, aimed at transcending the dichotomy of structure and agency, in order to explore the evolution of women's economic and occupational status within the context of a dynamic and historical process involving the political structure and the female community. Giddens' structuration theory focuses on establishing logical connections between structure and agency. He seeks to develop a theory that effectively integrates the importance of structures, which are essential for social and political interactions, with a recognition of the will, adaptability, autonomy, and agency of individual actors. According to this framework, the production and reproduction of society is the result of skillful actions by social actors. These actors construct structures, but they do not do so entirely by choice; instead, their actions are influenced by the status and circumstances they directly encounter, as well as by the historical legacies passed down to them. Therefore, Giddens conceptualizes the relationship between structure and agency as an ongoing and dynamic historical process. By adopting the theoretical framework of Giddens' structuration, the study underscores the significance of interactions between two essential components: the human element (represented by women) and the structural factors (such as the economy and politics). This framework offers valuable insights into a deeper understanding of the developments in this particular period of Iran's history.

During and after the Islamic revolution and the Iran-Iraq war, Iranian women received encouragement from political leaders to participate in the public sphere and contribute to solving societal issues. However, their involvement was challenged by gender segregation policies and laws that restricted women's participation. In response to these structural limitations, women took proactive steps to overcome these barriers and began influencing economic policies as informed agents. Over time and in subsequent periods, they managed to change opposing views in their favor. Notably, during the Iran-Iraq war, women played significant roles and effectively convinced many opponents of their presence in the public sphere. Following the war, the Iranian government recognized the need to rebuild the economy and realized that changes in collective models and the reduction of barriers obstructing women's participation were essential. This required creating a conducive environment for women's presence in society and their active involvement in the reconstruction of Iran. The government led by Hashemi (commonly referred to as the "constructive government") made efforts to empower, train, and employ women, particularly in specialized, managerial, and entrepreneurial roles.Subsequently, during the tenure of the reformist government, it was acknowledged that the unsatisfactory status of women resulted from structural limitations and the lack of agency. The government identified issues such as low self-confidence, self-esteem, and theprevailing culture of masculism as significant problems. In response, it developed a master plan to empower women, support their rights, and promote "gender justice," especially in terms of employment.With Ahmadinejad's presidency, there was a shift toward promoting an Islamic state and reinforcing religious values in society. He believed that women, by excelling in their roles as daughters, wives, mothers, and sisters, could exert influence over the entire world and society. Although the third and fourth development plans aimed to encourage women's participation in the public sphere while acknowledging their important roles in the family, the fifth development plan linked women's development to their family roles and, to some extent, diminished provisions related to their participation, equal opportunities, employment, and civil institutions that were previously considered in the third and fourth plans.When the moderate government, led by Hassan Rouhani, came to power, it adopted a similar approach to the constructive and reformist governments regarding women's employment. This government emphasized strengthening women's status, treating their scientific, research, political, social, and economic talents equally, and addressing women's economic concerns in the sixth development plan. It also focused on sustainable employment for women and worked to reduce their unemployment, especially among educated women.

Drawing from Giddens' theory of structuration, this study elucidated that the changes and advancements in women's economic and occupational status were the results of a dynamic and historical process occurring between the political structure and the women's community. Within this dialectical process, the women's community acquired knowledge influenced by structural decisions, and this knowledge played a vital role in reproducing suitable structures conducive to the enhancement of women's employment status.The trajectory of these changes signifies a reduction in the gender gap and an increase in women's utilization of their human and citizenship rights. As a result, it is recommended that women's fundamental human rights be incorporated into decisions and macro-policies to mitigate the financial and emotional costs associated with their protests.

Fertility rate as an effective factor in population change is of great importance in all societies. In this article, using the information of household income and expenditure plan in 2017 of Iran Statistics Center and using the Poisson method in Stata software, the effect of women's employment on fertility has been investigated. The estimation results show that women's employment has a negative and significant effect on fertility; in such a way that their employment reduces the size of the household by an average of 7%. Age and education variables also have a negative effect on the household dimension. Although the coefficient related to the income variable is positive and significant, its smallness indicates a very insignificant effect on the household dimension. The variables of educational expenses and religious expenses also have a positive and very strong effect on the household dimension. The virtual variable of urban and rurality of the household did not have a significant effect on the size of the household; therefore, it seems that the larger size of rural households is explained only through other variables of the model, especially the employment of the woman and her education.

Identifying and evaluating the effective factors in marriage and divorce has a significant role in adopting appropriate policies to increase the benefits of marriage and reduce the harms of divorce in society. In this study, using the information of the questionnaire of Iranian households in 2018, the effect of women's employment on marriage and divorce has been investigated and the desired model has been estimated using the polynomial logit regression method. The results of the estimate for married women show that women's employment has a positive effect on divorce; in a way, their employment increases the probability of divorce by an average of about 2.5%. The results also show that the religious expenses of the household and the age of the women have a negative effect on divorce. Other related variables (including education level, urban and rural household, household income, educational expenses and religious education expenses) did not have a significant effect on divorce. The results of model estimation for women who have never been married show that women's employment has had a positive effect on their never being married. In addition, the variable of age had a negative effect and the variables of educational expenses, religious expenses and education had a positive effect on women remaining single. Other variables (household income, urban and rural households, and religious education expenditures) also did not have a significant effect on being single.

Women's employment is one of the most important issues for government officials because unemployment of this group of people is one of the most important socio-economic challenges that can have devastating effects on economic growth. Business cycles are one of the factors that cause changes in the employment status of women and affect the share of women's employment in times of recession and boom. Therefore, the present study, using the NARDL method, has investigated the asymmetric effects of business cycles on women's employment share of Iran during the period 1966-2018. The results indicate that a positive or negative shock in business cycles has asymmetric effects on women's employment share. The results also showed that in the short term, positive business shock, negative and significant effect; and the negative shock of business cycles has a positive and significant effect on the share of women's employment and in the long run, this effect will last. other results show that in the short and long term, the fertility rate variable has a negative and significant effect on the share of women's employment. however, the significant effect of variables government spending on education and inflation rates on the share of women's employment in the short and long term is rejected. also, the minimum wage variable has a positive and significant effect on the share of women's employment in the short and long term.

In Islam the family has a very high rank. On the one hand, Islamic religion emphasizes the role of women in marital, motherhood and home affairs responsibilities, and Women's employment is highly respected within the framework of Islamic values. In this regard, the present study examines the impact of flexible women’s hours of work on their family responsibilities with an Islamic approach. In this research, 260 married women employees of higher education centers located in Tabriz were selected using a probabilistic sampling method sorted from universities and higher education institutions and questionnaires were randomly distributed among them. data were collected in the Winter 1396 and the Spring of 1397. Results analysis using Pearson correlation coefficient, simple and multiple linear regressions showed that the flexibility of women’s hours of work would improve their family responsibilities. Also, the results of the Friedman test showed that in the event of shorter working hours due to the use of flexible working hours, women would spend their free time to better off their family responsibilities.

This paper analyses factors influencing gender wage gap in Iran. The theory is based on the Numark model based on Oaxaca and Blinder (1973) framework for gender wage gap which is applied on Micro data from 2014 labour force survey of Iran. The results show that higher level of education among employed women in Iran has reduced the gender wage gap. However, a significant amount of gender wage discrimination exist for the same work and same level of education. The gap is greater in private sector compared to public sector. The private sector counts for a larger share of employement. At the same time, private sector offers a lower wage for the same work compare to the public sector and also creates a larger gender wage gap. JEL Classification:J31, J16, J21

Women's employment is one of the major economic issues that is of interest to economic, social and political thinkers. In the opinion of the experts, the employment of women with fixed and long work hours causes physical and mental harms, and affects the welfare of the family. This research seeks to answer the question of the impact of flexible work hours for women on the welfare of the family in the Islamic sense. For data collection, a questionnaire was used in the winter 1396 and spring 1397. The analysis of results was performed using Pearson correlation coefficient and simple and multiple linear regression. The statistical population of this study included all the married female employees of higher education institutions located in Tabriz city, 260 of whom were selected using stratified random sampling by separate universities. The results indicate that there is a positive and significant relationship between the flexibility of women's work hours and family well-being.

This paper investigates the role of socioeconomic factors in the divorce rate, with emphasis on business cycles, women’s education and employment which have ambiguous impacts in the literature. For this purpose, the empirical model is estimated by using the panel data econometrics, based on the data for 30 provinces of Iran over the period of 2007-2015. According to the results, inflation and unemployment rates have positive impacts on divorce rate and also, the business cycle effects in divorce indicate that the divorce in Iran has counter-cyclical behavior. The impacts of social factors on divorce show that educated women’s employment is positively related to marital stability through the reduction of family economic strain.

Since 1980s, credit policy has been promoted as an important mechanism in job creation, especially for women. However, some researchers have showed that although microfinance programs have significant potential for contributing to women’s wellbeing, yet, many women borrowers have limited control over loans and/or resulted income. In such cases credit policy may not change women status. Women’s Cooperatives are one of the institutional set up for mitigating female unemployment and promoting women’s position in the society and household. However, in most cases, cooperatives that established by the help of state subsidies may not realize the expected goals. Our field research about Women’s Cooperatives in Mazandaran province (Iran) confirms that there is no automatic benefit of micro-finance for women; as many registered Women’s Cooperatives have not been able to create long lasting economic activity, despite of receiving loans.

Since 1980s, credit policy has been promoted as an important mechanism in job creation, especially for women. However, some researchers have showed that although microfinance programs have significant potential for contributing to women’s wellbeing, yet, many women borrowers have limited control over loans and/or resulted income. In such cases credit policy may not change women status. Women’s Cooperatives are one of the institutional set up for mitigating female unemployment and promoting women’s position in the society and household. However, in most cases, cooperatives that established by the help of state subsidies may not realize the expected goals. Our field research about Women’s Cooperatives in Mazandaran province (Iran) confirms that there is no automatic benefit of micro-finance for women; as many registered Women’s Cooperatives have not been able to create long lasting economic activity, despite of receiving loans.

Women as a half of the active population, play an important and influential role in the Iranian economy. In recent decades, due to economic conditions, Employment for most of the women, notably for educated ones, has become an economic demand. Since women’s employment is a function of economic, social and population factors, focusing on one of these factors can’t reflect the reality of this subject.
The purpose of this paper is to Study socio-economic factors that affect the women employment in Iran. A Logit Model and Family budget (2011) have been used.
The results of this model for women, who reside in rural and urban areas , demonstrates that some factors such as the Number of employed persons in the household, Marital status, place of residence, as well as being the head of the household have a significant positive impact on women’s employment. Age as one of the important factors has a positive but non-linear effect on employment, while higher education has an adverse effect on women’s employment.

With respect to women's employment, various views exist amongst experts of the fields of economics, social sciences, ethics and religion. Some, with their economic view point, support women's working outside the home premises.Others, like some Islamic thinkers, contrary to Islam's permission in this regard and practical examples supported by Islam in its early days, are against the idea of women working outside. It appears that with respect to women working and getting employed, if policies compatible with their natural, spiritual and physical creation are not considered, undeniable damages will be implicated upon the society and family.The present article with a descriptive-analytic method and benefiting from Islamic teachings, aims to discover the overall desirable strategic policies with an Islamic approach for women's mployment. Considering such strategic policies,women's occupation outside their homes will either not hurt the society, upbringing of children, family etc. at all, or the damages will drop to the least.

A binary probit model is an appropriate method to analyses household and individual characteristics influencing women’s employment. Since this model is a non-linear probability model, its interpretation is not so easy as linear models. In this paper, after making the probit model of women’s employment based on data on 4220 married women at 20-50 age group, the model has been interpreted using probabilities predicted by various quantities of explanatory variables and changes in probabilities. Findings show that although, in comparison between urban and rural areas, direction of relation of the explanatory variables with women’s employment probability is the same, the extent and form of this relation (being either linear or non-linear) in most cases is completely different. In addition, it follows that the increase in the spouse’s annual income and in the household’s miscellaneous incomes could leave a considerable negative effect on the married women’s employment probability. Meanwhile, we concluded that the employment probability increases significantly with increase in age and educational levels.

The examination of women's employment is regarded a problem of modern age. Decrease in the size of family, increase in the level of knowledge, promotion of medical standards, and the expansion of freedom debates could be mentioned among the factors which helped the issue to be created. While making a review of different approaches, this paper launches a religious approach to the problem; and examining the features of economic activity of women in the early Muslim society, especially focuses on the economic management of Khadijah (the wife of the holy Prophet) and Fatimah Zahra (a.s.). Jurisprudential injunctions about women's work are noted, then regarding the importance of learning and spiritual and social growth of women and the need for economic activity, the obligations of Islamic government in this respect are listed and regarding the necessity of high attention to the family as the basic social institution, the rules that should dominate economic activity of women from religious point of view are suggested.