This study examined the effect of replacing dietary beet pulp with (BP) with barley in the diet of lactating cows on energy balance, feed intake, digestibility and feeding behavior during the transition period. 24 multi-parity Holstein cows, within 28 d relative to parturition up to day 24 of lactation were tested. Cows were assigned randomly to three dietary treatments containing before and after calving, respectively, were as follows: 1) Control (100% barley), 2) 75% barley +25% BP, and 3) 50% barley + 50% BP. During the pre and postpartum period, daily feed intake and energy intake was highest in 25% BP treatment (P < 0.0001). Dry matter intake as percentage of BW was highest in 50 and 25% beet pulp (P < 0.0001) before and after calving, respectively. Apparent digestibility of nutrients were not significantly different between treatments before and after calving. In postpartum, ruminal pH was lowest in cows fed control diets (P > 0.05). Before calving, cows sorted in favor of large particles (>19.0 mm) (P < 0.05) and against of short particles (>1.18 mm) (P < 0.01) when fed diets without BP (Control). Our results indicate that replacing 25% barley with BP in diets of transition cows improved performance and rumen health.

Lower critical temperature for a neonatal dairy calf ranges from 5 to 15°C. As the temperature drops below the calf's lower critical temperature, calf needs more dietary energy to maintain body temperature. If calves are fed the same amount of milk as under moderate environmental conditions, less energy will be available to support growth. In most small and medium holder Iranian farms, dairy calves are usually fed 4 L/d (equivalent to approximately 10% of birth weight) of liquid feed in fixed amounts until they are weaned on 60 d old. The aim of present experiment was to investigate the effect of milk replacer plane of nutrition (restricted vs. moderated; 4 vs. 6 L/d) on starter feed intake patterns, feeding behavior, and health in cold-stressed neonatal Holstein calves.

Twenty-four (n = 12 calf/treatment; 3 d old) newborn female Holstein calves (40.1 ± 0.84 kg; BW ± SE) were randomly assigned to receive either restricted (4 L/d; RPN) or moderated (6 L/d; MPN) milk replacer (21% crude protein, 17% fat, and 43% lactose on a dry matter basis) plane of nutrition. Calves were reared outdoor in individual pens with a mean ambient temperature of 3°C during the experiment. Calves were fed milk replacer twice daily at 0800 and 1700 h in pens bedded with wheat straw. Milk replacer intake, starter feed intake, fecal score (on a 1–5 score system), and ambient temperature were measured daily. All calves were visually observed (every 5 min) to monitor the eating, ruminating, resting, standing, lying, drinking, and non-nutritive oral behaviors for a 8-h period (between 0900 and 1700 h) once per 3 successive d before weaning (d 50–52 of the trial) as well as once per 3 successive d after weaning (d 83–85 of the trial). Repeated-measures ANOVA was used to compare feed intake and feeding behaviors between treatment groups, and logistic regression model using a binomial distribution (PROC GLIMMIX) was used to assess the chance of diarrhea (≥3) and needs to medication before weaning. Poisson regression model (PROC GENMOD) was also used to test group differences in frequency and duration of diarrhea and days medicated before weaning.

Milk replacer dry matter intake and average daily gain were greater in MPN vs. RPN fed calves. Meal pattern including meal frequency (6.0 bouts/8-h), meal length (10.7 min), inter-meal interval (80.1 min), eating rate (14.5 g of starter feed/min), and meal size (154.5 g of starter feed/bout) and rumination pattern including the number of bouts (3.8 bouts/8-h), rumination duration (17.1 min), and interval between rumination bouts (129.2 min) were not affected by treatment groups. Time spent ruminating and time devoted to drinking were greater in MPN vs. RPN calves. Meal frequency, meal length, eating rate, meal size, rumination duration and time for standing were greater but inter-meal interval and time for lying were lower during the post- vs. pre-weaning period. Non-nutritive oral behaviors and diarrhea frequency were not affected by experimental treatments. Calves receiving RPN vs. MPN had lower chance of diarrhea and greater chance of medication. Days with diarrhea and medication days were shorter in RPN vs. MPN fed calves.

Feeding MPN increased average daily gain in cold stressed calves. The lack of significant different in starter intake between experimental treatments was probably due to the lack of difference in the number and size of the meals. Although the calves fed MPN experienced higher chance of diarrhea with longer duration, but the incidence of diarrhea was not affected by the level of milk replacer feeding.

The effect of feeding roasted- or extruded soybean and their equal combination instead of soybean meal on feed intake, milk yield and milk composition, meal pattern and chewing behavior was evaluated using four multiparous (DIM = 113 ± 14) and four primiparous (DIM = 96 ± 20) Holstein dairy cows. Cows were used in a replicate 4 × 4 Latin square design with 21-d periods. Experimental diets were: 1) diet containing soybean meal (13.88% of dietary DM); 2) diet containing roasted soybean (15.22% of dietary DM); 3) diet containing extruded soybean (15.55% of dietary DM); and 4) diet containing equal blend (7.69% of dietary DM) of roasted- and extruded soybean. Feed intake, sorting index, meal pattern, and chewing behavior were measurement using standard procedures. Milk yield and milk composition, dry matter intake, meal size and inter-meal interval were not influenced by experimental diets. Although both meal length and total eating time tended (P=0.06) to be increased for primiparous vs. multiparous cows, eating rate (P=0.06) and dry matter intake (P=0.01) were greater for multiparous cows. Experimental diets had no effect on sorting index. Number of rumination bouts and total rumination time were greater for primiparous vs. multiparous cows. Results indicated that milk yield, dry matter intake, feeding pattern, and chewing activity were not influenced by feeding processed soybean instead of soybean meal.

It has been demonstrated that feeding behavior with influencing rumen pH can change milk fat percentage, but the pattern of the change in feeding behavior and relative change in rumen pH and milk fat percentage is not considered. The objective of this study was to investigate the change in the daily pattern of chewing activity, feed intake, rumen pH and milk composition in high- producing Holstein dairy cows fed a high concentrate diet.
eighty seven high-producing (50.1 ± 11.1kg/d) dairy cow in mid-lactation (103 ± 26.5 DIM) with the average body weight of 630 ± 76.8 kg and parity number of 2.35 ± 1.39 were used. The cow enrolled in the experiment during three 24-d periods consists of 14 days of adaptation and 10 days sampling. Diet consisted of 35 % forage and 65% concentrate and fed as TMR twice daily. All cows were subjected to measuring chewing activities, feed consumption at 2, 4, 6 h after morning feeding, and milk production and composition. Rumen pH was measured for all cows using rumencenthesis and 14 cows were subjected to continuous measurement of rumen pH using indwelling sensors with capability of continuous calibration and wireless transmission of data.
the result of this study showed the eating activity of cows was observed mostly during the day between 0700 and 2000, whereas rumination activity was during night. Cows had eating rate of 3 kg/h during first 2 h after morning feeding while in other times eating rate diminished as little as 1 kg/h. Rumen pH declined fallowing the start point of eating time and in 2 h after evening feeding at lowest pH. The duration of pH under 5.8 was about 840 min/d that indicated cows at acidosis condition. In consistent with rumen pH, milk fat depressed in night milking and then it continued up to morning milking. Regression analysis indicated that dry matter intake at 2h after morning feeding has a major effect of modulating rumen pH depression.
Cows eating patterns could have a major impact on rumen pH and the duration of rumen pH depression which further affect milk fat. The increased feed intake during first 2h after feeding could improve rumen pH.

This study was designed to investigate the association between parental behavior and the dietary intake of Tehranian preschool children aged 2-6 years. In a cross-sectional study conducted on 310 children aged 2-6 years from the kindergartens of 22 districts of Tehran, a qualitative validated 85-item food frequency questionnaire was completed by interviewing with their parents. Also the effect of parental behavior on the children’s dietary intake was assessed using a validated comprehensive feeding practices questionnaire (CFPQ). 47 and 53% of children were girls and boys, respectively. Among the parental behavior patterns, encouraging children to eat healthy foods, using food rewards, teaching and talking with children about the value of foods, encouraging the children to participate in food purchasing and preparation, making available the healthy foods, parental controlling behavior, child’s control, restricted behaviors because of having weight loss diet, and role modeling were significantly associated with the dietary intake of food groups (P<0.05). Any effort to promote children’s dietary intake needs considering the role of parents in the development of feeding patterns, and interest in children to consume healthy foods.

Forty Holstein heifers with an average age of 12-16 months (363.4 ± 32.8 kg BW) were used in a 2×2 factorial design, in which 10 heifers were allocated to four stalls. The current experiment prolonged 100 days with 10 days for adaptation period and 90 days for sampling period. The rations in this experiment had the same forage/concentrate ratio and the only difference was in the amount of dietary energy density and feed bunk space. Treatments included: 1) Small feed bunk space (24 cm) with low level of energy, 2) Small feed bunk space (24 cm) with high level of energy, 3) Large feed bunk space (48 cm) with low level of energy and 4) Large feed bunk space (48 cm)  with high level of energy. The results showed that meal frequency was affected by diet energy density as mentioned parameter was higher for treatments with low energy density in comparison with high energy density. Also, feed bunk space had significant effect on heifer feeding behavior through motivating of competition for feeding. As, the meal frequency (#/day) was higher and meal size (kg/meal) was lower for small feed bunk space in comparision with the large feed bunk space. The results clearly showed that feed bunk space is the key factor to motivate competition behavior of feeding in heifres.

To evaluate the interaction effects of season and dietary forage particle size on milk yield and composition, 100 early lactation Holstein cows in two seasons of spring and summer (each season with 50 heads) in the form of two treatments containing alfalfa forage with large particle size (geometric mean 7.7 mm) and fine particle size (with a geometric mean of 4.2 mm) were used. The amount of dry matter intake of cows was recorded in groups and the milk production of cows was recorded individually.The results showed that milk yield, protein, lactose and total solid percentage of milk were higher within spring compared to summer (P< 0.01). Milk yield (P= 0.09) and milk lactose percentage (P = 0.08) for cows fed fine forage particle size trended to be higher than cows fed long forage particle size. The amount of dry matter intake within two hours after feeding for summer was higher than spring (P< 0.01). Overall, results of the predent study indicated that cows fed with fine forage particle size had more homogeneous feeding behavior pattern within both studied season than cows fed long forage particle size.

Feed intake includes a set of physiological mechanisms that affects different parts of the central nervous system. Histamine as a central neurotransmitter involved in regulating appetite. This study is conducted to evaluate the effects of determining the importance of nutrition mode, on the effect caused by histamine via intra-peritoneal injection histamine peripheral receptors in satiety and hunger on feed and water of broilers. When the histamine injected central, feed consumption will be through of H1 histamine receptor. It seems peritoneum injection of histamine, prevents the feed consumption in broilers. We also designed some tests to determinate the effects of H1 and H2 receptors on feed consumption in growing broilers. Histamine through its H1 receptors prevents the feed absorption in broilers.
In this study, environmental impacts of histaminergic system on feed intake male Ross broiler chickens were studied in 2 phases. 32 one-day-old broilers were raised to four-week-old in group and then in the 4th week as single. The temperature in the first week of nourishment was set at 32-31 °C, and the every week the temperature was lowered 3-2 degrees, so that during the tests the temperature was adjusted between 24-21 ° C. Average weight of chickens at the time of the experiment (4 weeks), was 720 gr.
Data was analyzed in form of repeated measurements and averages were compared using LSMEANS test. Data analysis was performed using SAS software. Treatments included 40 mg/kg inject able chloramphenicol, 5.2 mg/kg famotidine, 1 mg/kg histamine, and saline. The amount of water consumed was measured by drinker scaled with accuracy 1ml. Total volume injected was 5.0 ml intra peritoneal.
Results showed a significant difference between feed intake of hungry broilers and broilers who had free access to feed. Histamine induced lower feed intake in both satiety and hunger, but its effect was more significant in satiety. The tests showed that water intake in satiety and hunger modes were significantly different. The amount of water usage in hungry chickens was more as feed intake in hungry chickens was also more. We can say that water intake depends on the amount of feed intake and water intake also rises with increased feed intake. Serotonin is effective in reducing the amount of feed intake and reduces the duration and frequency of feed intake, but it is not effective on latency time before eating. Histamine through leptin may decrease feed intake. It also recognized that the saturation of cholecystokinine depends on liberalization of histamine, which is bound on H1 and H2receptor and ultimately reduces feed intake. Chloramphenicol reduced feed intake in both satiety and hunger. Famotidine induced lower feed intake in first minutes, but had no effect in hunger. Water appetite was decreased by chloramphenicol but famotidine increased water appetite by inhibiting H2 receptor, both in satiety and hunger. Seems that histamine and cholinergic systems are linked together and histamine modifies cholinergictrans mission. Theoretically cholinergic system reduces blood pressure, thus it reduces water loss from the kidneys and there by leads to secretion of kidneys and affect brain and causes sense of thirst and result in increasing water intake.
Finally, H1 and H2 receptors play role in feed and water intake. These antagonists were involved in controlling feed intake if they cause increased feed intake and may other receptors be involved reduced feed intake result from histamine. Receptor antagonistH1 (chlorpheniramine), in both satiety and hunger modes causes significant decrease in feed intake, also receptor antagonistH2 (famotidine) at limited times significantly decreased feed intake in chickens with no limitation period, that this reduction in feed intake in satiety mode was more and total, chickens in satiety mode consume less feed than hungry chicks. Chlorpheniramine causes significantly decreased water intake in both satiety and hunger. Famotidine significantly increases water intake in hunger mode and in satiety mode it significantly increases water intake in the first hours after injection. Histamine resulted in significant reduction of water intake in satiety and cause to significant increase of water intake in hunger mode. Considering the increased water intake by histamine and reducing water intake by chlorpheniramine at the same time, in hunger mode H1receptor is involved in increased water intake caused by histamine. Peritoneal injection of histamine shows that water consumption increase with feed consumption and it seems this occurrence regulated with some different mechanisms such as release of angiotens in and histamine.

Milk consumption is one of the most important factors affecting growth and survival of calves in the pre-weaning period. Usually due to the higher cost of milk for feeding calves, it is recommended that the amount of milk intake be maintained at about 10% of body weight (4 liters per day), so that the calf is more encouraged to intake starter diet. In recent years, researchers have been looking for the best milking pattern to support the growth of calf more economically .The aim of this study was to compare the effect of two milk intake patterns, including conventional (4 kg / day) and free milk intake on the performance, skeletal growth, and blood metabolites of Holstein female calves. Thirty newborn Holstein female calves with average BW of 42.7 ± 2.2 kg were used in a completely randomize design. Experimental treatments included of conventional (4 Kg/d) and ad libitum milk intake. The experiment carried out in two periods: pre-weaning (day 1 to day 60) and post-weaning period (day 61 to day 120). Calves fed milk twice daily in the morning and the afternoon and had free access to starter diet and water. Starter intake was measured daily and ADG was calculated in a weekly basis. Skeletal parameters including body length, withers height and pin distance were taken at weaning (day 60) and end of the experiment (day 120). Blood metabolites including glucose, total protein, triglyceride and cholesterol were measured on days 30 and 60 of the study. The results showed that calves fed ad libitum milk intake had lower pre-weaning starter intake (P<0.01) and greater starter intake (P<0.01) during post-weaning and overall periods than those fed conventional milk intake. In calves fed ad libitum milk intake, average daily gain was higher (P<0.01) than the calves fed conventional milk intake during pre-weaning and overall periods but it was lower (P<0.01) during post-weaning period. Feed efficiency was higher during pre-weaning (P=0.05) and lower during pre-weaning period (P<0.01) in calves fed ad libitum than those fed conventional milk but it was insignificant in the overall period (P>0.05). Body weight of calves fed ad libitum milk intake was greater during pre-weaning, post-weaning and overall periods than those fed conventional milk intake (P<0.01). Calves fed ad libitum milk intake had greater (P<0.05) body length than those fed conventional milk intake. Plasma glucose and cholesterol concentrations were greater (P<0.05) in calves fed ad libitum milk intake than those fed conventional milk intake in day 30 of experiment. Plasma total protein and cholesterol concentrations were not affected by milk intake pattern (P>0.05). It is concluded that ad libitum milk intake resulted in better performance of dairy calves

Thirty female Wistar rats were randomly allocated to three dietary groups: a standard diet (containing soy bean-oil), diet containing fish oil and diet containing mixed oil which was designed based on Iranian population fatty acid intake. Dams in each group were fed one of the diets during pregnancy and lactation and the pups were also weaned onto the same diet. Fasting serum glucose (Photometry) and insulin (ELISA) in pups were assessed and insulin sensitivity calculated on puberty. Fasting serum insulin in fish oil-fed group was significantly less than two other groups (P=0.018) and insulin sensitivity in fish oil-fed rats was significantly more than two other groups (P=0.002). It seems a diet containing fish oil (rich in long chain omega-3 fatty acids) causes more insulin sensitivity comparing to diet containing soy bean oil (rich in omega-6 fatty acids) and diet with Iranian population fatty acid intake pattern (rich in saturated fatty acids).