Context: Every year, millions of people travel around the world to attend a wide range of mass gatherings (MGs) such as sport events and religious festivals. These MGs increase the risk of infectious diseases outbreaks which is facilitated by large number of individuals staying in confined areas, sometimes for a short period of time..
Evidence Acquisition: Electronic medical databases including PubMed and EMBASE were searched from 1990 to 2014 on the subject of epidemiology of infectious diseases related to MGs. Keywords including "mass gathering", "crowding", "infectious diseases", "communicable diseases", "outbreak" and "surveillance" were used for retrieving the relevant articles. In this review article, we mainly focused on the epidemiology and surveillance systems related to infectious diseases control and management..
The spread of infectious diseases has been a major public health challenge related to MGs. Food-borne diseases and respiratory infections have been the most common outbreaks reported during MG. Preparedness and response plans to manage possible infectious diseases outbreaks requires enhancing infectious diseases surveillance, allocation of appropriate human and financial resources, and coordination among the various divisions of public health. Hajj is an example of good practice which involves millions of pilgrims, in which comprehensive infectious diseases surveillance is in place to monitor health risks and reinforce evidence-based planning for preventive measures..
Infectious disease surveillance for MGs should preferably be built via some modification and improvements, made to the existing surveillance and notification system to assist early detection and response to infectious diseases outbreaks..

Despite vast advances in the fields of science and medicine, numbers show that infectious disease is still a serious threat to global health. Since, microbes know no boundaries, fighting infectious disease has long been a subject of international cooperation between States. But the question remains that how fighting infectious disease can relate to human rights? There exists a twofold relationship: On one hand, States have responsibility to protect, respect and enforce the right to health, therefore they are obligated to take necessary actions to prevent and control infectious disease. On the other hand, securitization of this fight caused mainly by emerging and re-emerging infectious disease, globalization and its affects on people's life style has resulted in human rights breaches while fighting these diseases. Nevertheless, it is argued that international law is capable of striking a balance between these two apparent contradictory faces of the global fight against infectious disease.

Health surveillance systems are now paying more attention to infectious diseases, largely because of emerging and re-emerging infections. The main objective of this research is presenting a statistical method for modeling infectious disease incidence based on the Bayesian approach. Since infectious diseases have two phases, namely epidemic and non-epidemic, joint distributions seem preferable for modeling disease incidence. We used a hidden Markov model - suitable for joint distributions- to arrive at a statistical model applicable to infectious diseases. Parameter estimation was done using a Bayesian method. The resulting model was then applied to monthly incidence rates for malaria to test the model's applicability to real data. The error sum of squares of the model fitted to monthly incidence rates for malaria was 190.59 and the coefficient of determination between observed and fitted values was 0.84. It appears that the hidden Markov model with a cyclic regression equation has a proper goodness of fit when applied to malaria incidence rates. The hidden Markov model is an efficient statistical tool for modeling infectious disease incidence rates.

The development of information technology and its use in the health system has taken many measures to protect and promote human health, however, the world still faces long-term threats and recurrence of infectious diseases. Understanding the dynamics of infectious diseases is important in controlling the disease because the network and the mode of impact of infectious diseases are very complex. The management of infectious diseases can also be considered as a complex social system due to the fact that has many complexities (such as dimensions, parameters, interactions, behaviors and rules), for this reason, the approach of the present study is a multifaceted understanding of the spread of infectious diseases. To design the present model, an intelligent system with a combination of mathematical, machine learning and epidemiological dimensions is proposed. The disease studied in this study, due to its importance and prevalence, is Covid 19. In this study, with the approach of complex systems and using the Internet of Things and machine learning methods, an algorithm was presented that uses environmental and individual variables to predict the probability of disease in an individual. Therefore, this research can improve the prevention of infectious diseases by filling some of the gaps in 3 sections: 1- Re-emergence of infectious diseases and the potential of IoT and AI, 2- Speed of dissemination and importance of real-time tracking, and 3- Budget and cost. The evaluation of the algorithm in this study was determined by two criteria of sensitivity and specificity. The results of the proposed algorithm for predicting Covid 19 disease showed an accuracy of more than 98%. Sensitivity above 98% was also obtained. Which is very important for the diagnosis of Covid disease 19 and shows the low number of false negatives in the test results. Therefore, the proposed model, combined with the Internet of Things and machine learning, can cause early diagnosis and prevent the spread of the Covid-19 disease with high specificity and sensitivity.

Infectious diseases were one of the most important public health problems in Ardabil during the first Pahlavi period (1925-1941 AD). These diseases caused the illness and death of many people. The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors and consequences of the spread of infectious diseases in Ardabil during the first Pahlavi period. The research method is descriptive and historical-retrospective, which tries to answer the research questions using documentary and library sources. The findings show that malaria, trachoma, smallpox, tuberculosis, rinderpest, venereal diseases, and diphtheria were among the most common infectious diseases. Poverty, illiteracy, poor public health, lack of medical facilities, and the geographical location were the main factors in the spread of these diseases. Considering the critical nature of the issue, the first Pahlavi government tried to control and prevent diseases by carrying out measures such as public education, establishing health and treatment centers and reforming their structure, sending doctors and distributing medicine, and implementing quarantine and vaccination. The results showed that the efforts of the first Pahlavi government in fighting infectious diseases in Ardabil were relatively successful and reduced the prevalence of some diseases.

In recent years, we have seen an increasing number of outbreak reports of various emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. Africa continue to be plagued with infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, trachoma, Ebola, Lassa Fever, COVID-19 and monkeypox. It is therefore pertinent to draw lessons and insights from the most recent outbreaks to guide response strategies for the future. Stigmatization is a common challenge that has accompanied the outbreak of infectious diseases in time past. Antistigma framework should be incorporated into diseases outbreak preparedness and response across all countries to address the mental health consequences that accompany disease-related stigmatization. Furthermore, certain containment measures that have proven effective in mitigating against the spread of COVID-19 could be adopted for the prevention of other infectious diseases. The media plays an important role in the communication of health information during disease outbreaks and should be leveraged for disease prevention and control. It is high time we rose unitedly against the microbes who are ready to render the human race extinct.

Many of the texts referenced by faculty members and medical students are from foreign sources and references, and the history of contagious diseases and the unique role of the country's scientists in the identification, treatment and control of these diseases has been forgotten. This paper attempts to review the history of prevalent bacterial infections in Iran. In this regard, it was attempted to review the scientific literature, including historical books and articles, with the historical background of prevalent bacterial infectious diseases such as cholera, leprosy, plague, tuberculosis, etc., as well as those who are hard-working and have played a significant role in difficult conditions trying to reduce the suffering of the people at that time. A review of the history of prevalent bacterial infectious diseases in Iran leading to the historical background of these diseases to be detailed in the book "History of Microbiology and Bacterial Infectious Diseases in Iran" is under the supervision of the Academy of Medical Sciences. Editing of scientific resources and academic books related to this issue should be based on the history of prevalent infectious diseases in Iran, so that in the future this historic cultural disadvantage would be corrected in an appropriate way.

The spread of infectious diseases is a serious threat to the security of human health in human societies. Therefore, taking care of the behavior of patients with infectious diseases, quarantine and restricting them and preventing the spread of the disease is one of the most important issues in the field of medical jurisprudence. In order to control and prevent infectious diseases, it is necessary to pay attention to the civil and criminal liability of the transmitter. This research, which is written in a descriptive-analytical method, states that the transmitter of the disease has civil and criminal responsibilities with conditions. Imami jurists have commented on the responsibility of one who infects another with a contagious disease based on the principles of impermissibility, abuse or deviation, and attribution, and in spite of each of them, hold the transmitter responsible for compensation. Regarding the responsibility of governments, it should be said that the government can use its power and authority to prevent the spread of infectious diseases to a large extent, and in case of negligence in performing its duties and responsibilities, it should be responsible for compensating the damages.

Infectious diseases can be caused by the direct or indirect transmission of microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, parasites or fungi. The spread of these diseases and infections may cause a global pandemic such as COVID-19. Establishing and using artificial intelligence can help scientists predict infectious diseases to prevent the spread of epidemics, understand the behavior of microorganisms, and discover drugs to control disease faster. Today, artificial intelligence is on the verge of evolving the health care system through disease-focused analysis and interventions to promote faster, more reliable, and more cost-effective solutions to human well-being. Artificial intelligence systems use cognitive computing, deep learning, variable neural networks, and machine learning and can play an important role in diagnosing, screening, monitoring, reducing the workload of caregivers, and predicting new treatments. This article reviews the potential applications of artificial intelligence in the field of infectious diseases that can help the health institutions of the global community in combating the increase of infectious diseases.

Despite development of preventive and controlling strategies regarding infectious diseases, they are still considered as one of the most significant leading causes of morbidity and mortality, worldwide. Changes in humans’ demographics and behaviors, microbial and ecological alterations, agricultural development, international travels and susceptibility to infectious diseases have resulted in increased reports of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) and reemerging infectious diseases (RIDs) in various geographical areas.
Because of the various types of geographic properties in Iran, substantial climatic variability, as well as unstable political situations and poor public health conditions in some of neighboring countries, EIDs and RIDs are serious public health problems; among them, zoonotic and drug resistant diseases are the most significant.
Hence, this review provides an overview of the significant bacterial, viral and fungal EIDs and RIDs in Iran regarding their epidemiological aspects.