Civil liability in electronic communications is one the most important issues of Information and communications technology (ICT) law. Civil liability may be arisen from different causes such as copyright and trade mark infringement invasion of privacy and defamation. when discussing civil liability, two different civil liability systems may be considered: direct and indirect civil liability. In electronic transactions, the roll and legal situation of electronic communications service providers and intermediaries (such as internet service providers (ISPs), access service providers (ASPs) and host service providers) is very important. Liability of intermediaries and service providers are typical examples of indirect liability. On the other hand, indirect liability is of following types: contributory or vicarious.

Internet liability of Internet intermediaries means that if the actions of any person who deals with the Internet under different headings and purposes, lead to damage to the interests or rights of others, whether a person or a person, how and on what basis, should be required to Compensate. This descriptive-analytical study was conducted by referring to libraries and Internet sites. Examples that provide civil liability in cyberspace, such as the role of social networks and intermediaries and providers of virtual communication services and their place in the analysis of civil liability in space Examines and analyzes cyber law and proves that the basis of civil liability in cyberspace is based on fault and guarantee of rights and the type of liability is also joint and several. The results of the research also show that the victims in this space can claim all the material and moral damages that have been inflicted on them according to the general rules of civil liability.

Electronic intermediaries can have many examples, but one of its obvious examples is those intermediaries who provide internet services or electronic connections for users.There is no doubt that the intermediaries and the suppliers of such services play the major role in establishing electronic connections. There is a possibility of a failure in this process for example desecration of people by the employees of the suppliers or by activities or services of the intermediaries. This possibility has caused some people to claim against these intermediaries. The intermediaries’ responsibility is a function under general rules of civil liability. Because in Iran’s legal system and many other countries the theory of “Taghsir” (fault) has been accepted, in order to analyze the responsibility of the intermediaries, we have to study their legal obligations and the cases of committing Taghsir.There are some legal protections for some of the intermediaries based on the services they provide in some of the legal systems that shows as exemptions. Obviously, applying those exemptions requires specific legal conditions. Therefore the current article, tries to express the responsibility of those intermediaries from the jurisprudence texts and subject rules of Iran.

Cyberspace, characterized by its unique features such as being borderless, has expanded the possibility of norm violations to all corners of the world. The purpose of this study is to examine the imposition of civil liability on multiple causes of harm in cyberspace under Iranian law. The research method is descriptive-analytical, relying on library resources. In Iranian law, given the absence of a specific mechanism for the emergence of civil liability in cyberspace, civil liability can be imposed equally or jointly on multiple causes based on traditional and general civil liability doctrines, particularly considering the element of fault. In the case of multiple successive causes in both cyberspace and the real world, the research findings indicate that, although there are similarities, the principles and elements of civil liability in cyberspace often differ from those in the real world due to the involvement of multiple actors and internet intermediaries. Civil liability for multiple successive causes in cyberspace differs from that in the real world, with the default being the theory of customary cause, while for multiple concurrent causes, the default is shared liability. Regarding judicial practice on the distribution of liability in the case of multiple causes in cyberspace, it can be said that judicial practice distinguishes the distribution of liability in cyberspace depending on the actors involved. For natural persons, the default is customary liability based on fault, while for legal entities and internet intermediaries, the default is strict liability, without the requirement of fault.

Electronic transaction means any exchange of funds where, at least, one operation is conducted using electronic means. In these transactions, although the customer demands transaction to Transferring bank, but the electronic transaction part are doing by Clearing House or Intermediary bank. It concepts that Clearing House has not direct relationship with customer, consequently, the question arises that if damages caused by him, Is he liable against customer? It seems that the clearing house’s liability against its customers is a type of professional liability with a dual state that is a combination of contractual and civil liability named it “legal basis” that is composed of civil and contractual liability.  In addition, the liability of clearing house is strict and the mere reference of damage to him leads to its liability and it is only through proof by the force major can be exempted from liability. Attending to clearing house obligate the part of transaction mere and other part of transaction undertake by transferring and transferred bank, consequently, in loss claim  action, the customer should prove that damage refer to clearing house.

This research estimates a measure of systemic risk, namely Systemic Expected Shortfall, as the aggregate amount of capital that financial institutions need in order to offset a certain fraction of liabilities when the financial system is undercapitalized. Each financial institution’s SES is a combination of market capitalization, appropriate capital adequacy ratios and liabilities. The main purpose of this study is rating the financial institutions in the current economy. To do this, a sample of 31 financial institutions listed in Tehran stock exchange during period from 2009 to 2012 was selected. Therefore, this study: (i) derives the appropriate leverage level that allows financial intermediaries don’t have negative externality to overall economy during the possible crisis; (ii) explains the ability of the Marginal Expected Shortfall and insolvency risk measures to estimate the percentage variation of market capitalization and liabilities using multiple Regression; (iii) identifies the most systemic importance of financial institutions (SIFIs), using SES.

Banks as the biggest and most important active institutions in money market as well as having financial intermediary role including resource saving and financing play a significant role in the economy. Banks face with different challenges to play their role in the society. One of these challenges is the optimal asset-liability management along with evaluating the related risks including credit risk which derives from lending facilities. The present study aimed to implement asset-liability management model for managing the credit risk of the banks. The ratio of lending facilities to asset and the ratio of delayed debts to facilities and capital adequacy were the variables of the study to assess the credit risk. In addition, the value at risk was calculated. In this study, data were collected from all 14 banks listed on the Tehran Stock Exchange from 2009 to 2016. The results indicated that it is essential to implement asset-liability management model for effective management and reducing the credit risk for the banks.

There is a very wide range of advances in the medicine that are used to meet the therapeutic needs. sometimes advances depend on technology and medical industries And sometimes this development depends on specialized sciences, Science of genetic change is one of these sciences, this science is often used to apply a gene change to the fetus, But the main question is that if the gene change in the fetus causes a physical, mental or psychological damage to the recipient of the gene, What is the basis for the subsequent liability of a person? The ambiguity in this field has led us to conduct research using the descriptive-analytical method in which we found that It is only the gene change in the fetus that can lead to criminal liability for the offender, Provided that the condition of knowledge and consciousness, intent and causality relationship can be discovered in relation to an incident occurring at the time of the gene change or afterwards. In the meantime, if the damage is caused by intermediary, the crime is unintentional. The type of crime is deliberate if the damage is not cause intermediary. However, if the genomic change factor is involved only as a cause of injury, and its involvement with other means is established.  In this case, the liability will be in accordance with the law. Also, if someone transmits a tampered gene to another in a generic sequence, if the science knows the damage to that gene at the time of its activation. This person has criminal liability. In all forms that the gene is manipulated, If knowledge exists and satisfaction has been initially obtained, This prevents the liability for person asking for a change in the gene, but it does not eliminate the liability of the person perpetrating the gene expression for the person whose gene is being changed. Please cite this article as: Ebrahimabadi F, Salarzaee AH, Montazeralzohori M, Kaykha MR. Basis of Criminal Liability for Genetic Change in the Womb. Iran J Med Law 2019; 13(48): 31-48.

Personality rights are among those fundamental human rights that protects an individual against the violation of his or her privacy by others; Today, due to widespread use of internet services and new technologies, these rights have turned into the most challenging legal issues. Internet intermediaries and users may violate the personality rights of individuals and their privacy in cyberspace by publishing their private information. To support these rights, and considering the fact that some general rights to personality are recognized in Iranian law, it is necessary to answer these questions, what are the theoretical foundations of the violation of personality rights by internet intermediaries and users? Considering the fact that violation of such rights is mainly a violation of moral rights, in addition to a guarantee of criminal execution, can a guarantee of civil liability be used in cases related to the violation of personality rights? In the present research, these questions are answered by examining the related issues.

Unauthorized access to the individuals´ private information and data is considered as violation of personality rights and harmful activities resulting in civil liability. Fault-based liability is the dominant foundation of Iranian law. Of course, considering the functions and natures of the two groups of players, i.e. internet intermediaries and users, present in this environment, we should consider the independent and individual civil liabilities of each of these two groups.

Today, online stores sell goods and services through online contracts, exchanging emails with the other party, or filling out a specific form on the website by one party. Online contracts may be executed by presenting the terms of the contract to one party and then asking the applicant to click on the words "I agree" or something similar. The number of consumers who use online platforms to fulfill their shopping needs has increased, and online stores have responsibilities for the intermediary role and the platform they provide for online buying and selling. From the legal point of view, two types of contractual or non-contractual responsibilities can be considered for these stores. Currently, these types of internet businesses are very popular among users, but in any case, we should look for a space to increase the security of this type of service and secure it, while taking care of and protecting consumer rights; because at present, with the very wide growth of this type of websites and online stores in different fields, we have witnessed the provision of services in the fields of sports, culture and leisure, electronic devices such as audio and visual devices, household, personal and office, real estate and land, vehicles, services and training, supplies and business, and even recruitment and employment or expression of job opportunities, etc. Since online platforms often act as "gateways to control and limit interactions in a system", the first question is whether online platforms and online stores can still be considered simply as intermediaries or should they be suppliers. The second question is whether platforms, as dominant channels in the market, may be held liable to their customers for infringements caused primarily by platform suppliers. Finally, the third question is whether there is a necessary connection between the first and second questions, namely that the platform operator may be held liable to its customers while it may not be treated as a mere intermediary, it may be treated as a supplier of goods and services provided by Platform Providers. Regarding the activity of online stores and their responsibility for their actions or others, it cannot be assumed that they are not absolutely responsible. The important issue is that in online shopping, the buyer makes a transaction that the seller has not seen closely, therefore, the necessity of such purchases, due to its nature, requires more support from the buyer. Because in such transactions, the buyer does not have detailed information about the seller of the goods, their credit, and the transaction, and the burden of the purchase risk is on the shoulders of the buyer. For this reason, as well as for the specialization of the subject and its great application and importance, in this research, an attempt will be made to examine the civil liability of online stores in the laws of Iran and the European Union. In relation to the foundations of civil responsibility of online stores, the theory of fault should be accepted as the main basis of civil responsibility in the laws of Iran and the European Union. In fact, where the providers of their Internet services and goods commit harmful acts, their liability is still based on fault. However, regarding the responsibility of internet sellers, you can also refer to other bases. The important thing about online stores is that concluding a sales contract through the internet in this category of stores should not create doubt that online stores are not subject to the general rules of civil liability. On the contrary, it should be stated that such stores are subject to general rules regarding civil liability rules; because buying or selling through online stores differs from traditional contracts in only a few specific cases; the most important of which is the method of concluding a contract. In other words, except for a few minor cases, in other cases, buying from an online store is not much different from buying from a real store; therefore, in relation to the civil liability of online stores, two types of liability can be realized, contractual and non-contractual liability. This type of separation in civil liability has been accepted both in the civil law of Iran and in the civil law of the European Union. On the other hand, in order to realize the civil liability of online stores in two areas of contractual and non-contractual liability, certain conditions are necessary. So in the field of contractual liability, the existence of a valid contract, breach of contract, and the existence of damage caused by the breach of contract are necessary, and in the field of non-contractual liability of the online store, the occurrence of loss, harmful action and the relationship of causation is necessary. It is suggested that cyberspace and internet stores are very suitable for millions of jobs. On the other hand, the Internet is a useful tool for marketing various services. In this regard, the creation of up-to-date and applicable laws as well as the amendment of existing laws are more important than ever. For this reason, it is suggested that, especially in Iranian law, laws in the field of online stores should be formulated in a specific way, and in these laws, the civil liability of this type of store should be determined clearly, inspired by the principles of civil responsibility and not limited to accepting one of the opinions and principles. Laws that, in addition to preventing the occurrence of computer crimes, should provide the opportunity for legal internet businesses to operate and grow, and this means that the laws are fair. In addition to the definition of platforms, the law that is developed for this purpose should include the providers and users of the internet platform for the purpose of electronic commerce, the law that is formulated for this purpose must state the criteria and criteria accepted in the legal analysis, of course, a mechanism for the purpose of floating the bon and the ability to generalize the criteria. Claims between parties (both platform, supplier, and user) should be considered. Also, the cases where the rules related to transactions do not respond to the new needs are written and govern the relations of the parties.