This research studies the understanding of the sea in the imagination of Muslim geographers up to the eighth century AH. To this end, it reviews marine phenomena including tides, islands, terraces, and marine mines in the Islamic geographical texts. It also explores concepts related to the sea (such as the lake) and the bay - and their differences from current definitions. The purpose of this study is to recognize issues related to the sea - such as the division and naming of seas - from the perspective of Muslim geographers. Numerous researches have been done on the seas, islands, and navigation in the Islamic Middle Ages but no proper research has been done on the Muslims' perception of the world's seas. What distinguishes this study from other research is the knowledge of geographers' perceptions and views of the sea and related issues from the perspective of geographical sources. A study of geographical texts shows that the definition of bay and sea by medieval Muslim geographers differed from current definitions of these concepts. Geographers have mentioned the number of seas in the world differently based on verses from the Qur'an and influenced by Greek science and civilization. Also in geographical texts, several names have been used for a single sea.

Historical anthropogeographical Books contain valuable information about the social, cultural, and historical aspects of human life. In these documents, Muslim geographers described the social situation, morality, customs, religious and political situation of the people in various regions of Islamic civilization. The descriptions of al-Iṣṭakhrī and al-Maqdisī, two prominent 4th-century Muslim geographers, in mentioning the geographic-historical facts, have been influenced by their ethnic, religious, and political tendencies. This article tries to investigate various cases of such tendencies in a descriptive-analytical way, in order to show that the geographic and historical evidence should always be taken into account cautiously and should never be cited without proper evaluation, refinement, and criticism.

Between the Second and founth centuries AH, travel to distant places became very common among Muslims. The Hajj Pilgrimage and quest for knowledge were among motives for traveling and search throughout the mundane realm in the Muslim World. In this article, it has been tried to present a brief description of the most important travels by Muslim geographers and envoys through a probe into eanly Islamic geographical Sources.

The region of Khurasan has undergone territorial expansions from pre-Islamic to present day. The current perspective on the realm of Khurasan in the early Islamic centuries places it in the south of the Jayḥūn River (Oxus). Nevertheless, a brief analysis and comparison of the views of Muslim geographers in the 3rd and 4th centuries AH cast doubt on the validity of this proposition. Therefore, the question that can be raised is the transformation that the concept of Khurasan has undergone in the works of geographers in these centuries. The present study, by adopting an analytical descriptive method, seeks to explore the views of Muslim geographers in the 3rd and 4th centuries AH to shed further light on the evolution of Khurasan in the Islamic period. The findings suggest that Khurasan covered a massive area until the early 4th century. Gradually, Khurasan became confined to the south of the Oxus (Madun-i-Nahr), following the separation of provinces of Khwarazm, Transoxiana, Qumis, and Sistan. Accordingly, terms such as “Great Khurasan" and "Small Khurasan" were proposed. In the next step, the question arises as to the relationship between this evolution and the geographical schools of Muslims. The findings of this study demonstrated that the focus of the representatives of the Iraqi school on concept of great Khurasan as opposed to the focus of the the representatives of the Balkhi School on the concept of small Khurasan could be seen as instances of the distinctions between these two schools. Keywords: Khurasan, Transoxiana, Madun-i-Nahr, Oxus, Turk territories, Balkhi School, Iraqi school.

The history of Moslems’ contribution to the science of geography is part of the intellectual renaissance which represents the advent of the Islamic Civilization. The rising and development of this civilization was in close conjunction with the emergence of a new scientific vitality which made the intellectuality conspicuously superior to power so that the science of geography and geographers of the Islamic world became influential in all over the world up to 15th century A.D.In view of the status of the Islamic world today and having the goal of providing applied geographical data, on regional and national grounds in mind, the following endeavors deem necessary: envisaging the developed Islamic world and explicating scientific development approaches and strategies; reestablishing the Moslem geographers’ position in congruent with the new era conditions; originating knowledge at global level, developing geographical information technology; and meeting the demanding situation of founding Islamic World Geographical Union (I.W.G.U).The establishment of the union will set the ground for the geographical associations, organizations and universities of the Islamic world to join their forces to develop the science of geography, through optimal and appropriate planning in intra-civilization uniformity to the world’s changing circumstances while focusing on its applied aspects within a framework of Moslem Community to ultimately develop the Islamic world.

Amongst the terms which Muslim geographers have borrowed from Persian, is "Rustaq " that has used in two forms; Rustaq and Rusta. Although in order to the same etymological roots and apparent resemblance, it was supposed that Rustaq and Rusta had the same meaning in the texts , these two words rarely have the same meanings
and implications. Generally, Rustaq and Rusta are two geographical independent units. Rusta was supposed to be used as Dih or Qerya(village) whereas, Rustaq referred to a unit larger than a city, and it was mostly like modern town Dihestan .

Until the first half of the second century AD, most geographers who mention the word Experts comprised of historical and geographical paying devotion and virtues.expansion of Islamic territory, and with other nations of the "Geography of virtue " to the "Geographic description " led to the Mongol invasion. In the literature to describe the geography addressed, issues such as Msalk, ways leading to the house of God was to determine the direction of Mecca, was the natural geography and climate. fear of the Mongols, geography and natural description of the "human historical geography and " To lead. Most authors of these books were Majrajvyany, who had struggled in the race, anthropology, and religious traditions to explore the Mongolian people, especially Europeans, to find the answer for troubled minds. So the most important geographic resources to travel the course of Western to hospice situation, the Sufis and dervishes and economic situation of people in this special place writings and in this respect the Muslim geographers of the virtue of the geography of the natural geography (description) and the historical geography - the humane movement.

The story of Gog and Magog and their final and dreadful exodos has a prominent aspect in the Islamic religious traditions. Thus, Muslim geographers and historians sought to locate their whereabouts, which according to religious narratives are to be found somewhere in this world. Meanwhile, the variable of historical situation and circumstances played a significant role in locating the whereabouts of the Gog and Magog. Using a historical analytical method and through a reexamination of the sources which related to before and after the Mongol invasion, the present paper studies the impact of the Mongol invasion on the Muslim perception of the Gog and Magog's geographic location. Although most of the sources consider probable that the whereabouts of the Gog and Magog was in the lands of the Mongolian tribes, increasing the geographic knowledge of the Muslims after Mongol invasion led them to distinguish between the two realms. Hence, the land of the Gog and Magog was located in lands far and beyond the lands of the Mongols.

Geographical texts of the Muslim world in the medieval period presented the diverse data and readings of Wonders of the World. Rather than serving as objective accounts pertaining to the reality, the data are indicative of the mentalities of the authors’ contemporaneous societal and cultural discourses. The main question addressed here is what mentalities Muslim geographers- from the third/ninth to the seventh/thirteenth century- held about the Pyramids and thereabouts, including Sphinx of Giza. Can we find any instances of scientific investigation or anthropological exploration in their discourse? Are the ideas of those Muslim scholars reflecting the popular narratives and folktales among the commoners? Content analysis serves as the model of this study. First, the data contained in the most important geographical sources about the subject is descriptively explored. Then, history of mentalities is applied in order to inquire, process, and analyse the data. The findings suggest that the mentalities prevailing among the commoners, such as the magical characters to depictions and statues in these historical constructs, has the upper hand over other interpretations.

Diffusion means dissemination, expansion, dispersion and mixture. Hagerstrand considers the six factors of domain or environment, time, subject, origin, destination, and the path of the origin of phenomena and innovations as the main factors in Percolation Theory’s analysis of the process of geographic space. The study of geographical distribution of the Prophetic traditions can help us understand the conditions of origin and the quality of distribution of these traditions in time. The widespread dissemination of the Islamic Message, the Prophet's traditions and the life-style of the Prophet of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula and then in other parts of the world in the early centuries of Islamic civilization are considered by Muslim and non-Muslim geographers as a unique cultural phenomenon.