مجله تاریخ و تمدن اسلامی
پیاپی 31 (بهار و تابستان 1399)

Almsgiving to Muhammad and his family is not permissible”. The order to pay alms zakat was issued in the Ninth year AH and The Prophet sent his agents to the “newly converted” Arabs to receive zakat and at the same time forbade almsgiving to the Bani-Hashim.  This report, with a historical credibility, has had a wide and long reflection in the jurisprudence and theology of Muslims so far.  There are three reasons given for issuing this prohibition: firstly, for the virtue of Bani-Hashem, then due to receiving khoms by Bani Hashim and finally because of the impurity of alms. But all those views are ambiguous and not compatible with The Prophet syrah. This paper shows that why The Prophet issued such an order. It seems that some cultural and historical factors such as the unpleasant and reluctancy of paying alms was the reason for the issuance of such a ban by The Prophet.

The life of Hazrat Khadijeh in early sources that have been reported with historical differences has led to the formation of false claims about her. One of the sources that contains a detailed biography of Khadīdjah is Al-Ṭabaḳāt al-Kubrā by Muḥammad b. Saʿd Baṣrī (d.230AH). The present study, by examining the case of Khadijeh's life in this book, explains the differences between the reports of earlier historians and compare with Ibn Sa'd's points of view. The findings of this study indicate that Ibn Saʿd's report on some issues such as Khadīdjah's age and how she got married with The Prophet seems to be correct. In contrary, his narrations about the Prophet's skepticism at the time of the first revelation and the importance of marrying ʿĀyisha are distorted. It seems that Ibn Saʿd tries to ignore some of Khadīdjah's virtues to pave the way for placing ʿĀyisha at the head of the wives of the Holy Prophet

The Umayyads, as a ruling dynasty had a great impact on the history of the East and West of the Islamic world. Despite the existence of many sources about the lives of the famous people of this family, their lineage has received less attention. The main question is about the validity of the reports related to the authenticity or non-authenticity of their attribution to the Quraysh. Although the power and influence of the Umayyads was a great obstacle to mentioning things contrary to their well-known lineage in the sources of the first history of Islam, some Shiite scholars and historians claim that they have valid reasons and sources for rejecting this attribution. Nevertheless, the views of those in favor of their relationship with the Quraysh are more widely accepted in historical perspective. In this study, while quoting the reasons for and against this attribution, their arguments have been examined and analyzed by descriptive-explanatory method.

The Umayyads, as a ruling dynasty had a great impact on the history of the East and West of the Islamic world. Despite the existence of many sources about the lives of the famous people of this family, their lineage has received less attention. The main question is about the validity of the reports related to the authenticity or non-authenticity of their attribution to the Quraysh. Although the power and influence of the Umayyads was a great obstacle to mentioning things contrary to their well-known lineage in the sources of the first history of Islam, some Shiite scholars and historians claim that they have valid reasons and sources for rejecting this attribution. Nevertheless, the views of those in favor of their relationship with the Quraysh are more widely accepted in historical perspective. In this study, while quoting the reasons for and against this attribution, their arguments have been examined and analyzed by descriptive-explanatory method.

Social movement is a fundamental argument in theories of revolution, and because of this importance, various theories have sought to explain it. One of the most important theories is the theory of relative deprivation. The Siahjamgan uprising sought the support of lower-income groups and relied on them in some of their slogans to raise the level of the value expectations of those social classes, while with the rise of the Abbasids to the caliphate, the level of value ability of the people did not change much. They suffered from frustration and relative deprivation. This situation led to revolt against the Abbasid caliphate, of which Babak Khorramdin's revolt was the most lasting one. The present article tries to investigate the formation and causes of this movement by using the method of historical analysis and sociology in the light of the theory of relative deprivation. The achievement of the article shows that the caliphs and agents of Bani Abbas challenged economic, religious and participatory values and caused relative deprivation, which led to an increase in the participation of social classes to Babak Khorramdin movement.

Ibn Saffār(370-426 AH), was an Andalusian Muslim astronomer and mathematician who authored several works on astronomy and also constructed the oldest-Sundial of Andalusia called Balāta To determine the time of prayer in noon and possibly afternoon. Since the Qibla is one of the sacred symbols of Islam, which has been at the center of Muslim attention for the centuries, finding the Qibla was especially important for this Muslim scholar. The question is how and in what way the qibla and the distance between Andalusia and Mecca have been obtained in the most famous work of Ibn Saffār, the Kitāb al-‘amal bi-l-asṭurlāb and also what were the characteristics of his “Balata” sundial?  To study this subject, it is necessary to know the mathematical methods in finding the Qibla as well as the sundials.The authors of the present paper  focus on Kitāb al-‘amal bi-l-asṭurlāb and also Balata sundial discuss about Ibn Saffar's role in the Andalusian astronomy and finding Qibla direction and determination of noon time there and based on the newly found chapters of her treatise, it has been concluded that he set the Cordoba qibla in the southeast direction and at an angle of 30 degrees to the rising sun during the winter solstice. The influence of this Astronomer from his master, “Maslama al‐Majrīṭī” (398 AH) and his attention to Kharazim's zīj, which was influenced by Zīj al-Sindhind and as well as Ptolemy's Geography indicates his reliance on Iranian, Indian and Greek sciences.

Geographical texts of the Muslim world in the medieval period presented the diverse data and readings of Wonders of the World. Rather than serving as objective accounts pertaining to the reality, the data are indicative of the mentalities of the authors’ contemporaneous societal and cultural discourses. The main question addressed here is what mentalities Muslim geographers- from the third/ninth to the seventh/thirteenth century- held about the Pyramids and thereabouts, including Sphinx of Giza. Can we find any instances of scientific investigation or anthropological exploration in their discourse? Are the ideas of those Muslim scholars reflecting the popular narratives and folktales among the commoners? Content analysis serves as the model of this study. First, the data contained in the most important geographical sources about the subject is descriptively explored. Then, history of mentalities is applied in order to inquire, process, and analyse the data. The findings suggest that the mentalities prevailing among the commoners, such as the magical characters to depictions and statues in these historical constructs, has the upper hand over other interpretations.

The present paper focuses on the vicissitudes in commercial relations between Egypt and Venice in Borji Mamluk (784- 923 H.) that caused by internal and external factors. The most important forces were the attack of Timur to Syria and the fall of Constantinople by ottomans. Both factors resulted in the unsafety of all connecting roads and so the trading through Red Sea boomed and also the business between Egypt and Venice was improved. In contrary, sometime certain meddling of some kings and princes in trading and hoarding of goods as well as frauds and swooning which coincided with pirates’ attacks caused drastic falls in above mentioned relation between Venice and Egypt. In certain periods new discoveries by Portuguese in some routes between Europe and Asia brought them a profitable trade of spices and other Asian products which in turn caused tangible losses for Venice and Egypt.

Central Asian cultural elites in the late nineteenth century, influenced by the modernization trends of Russia, the West, and the Islamic world, recognized their cultural backwardness and launched the reformist “Maarifparvari” movement led by Ahmad Makhdoom Danesh, calling for reform of the traditional education system, language, and literature. Eventually, with the formation of the Jadidism Movement in Tatarstan, the modernists of the region were attracted to the movement. The Jadidism movement called for reform of the education system and the use of “audio principles” instead of “professional principles” that prevailed in traditional schools and colleges. The movement, on the other hand, called for the introduction of secular science and modern science into Central Asian schools. Findings from preliminary research show that the trend of modernization in Central Asia was formed in response to the Russianization process and the non-responsiveness of the traditional education system to the needs of the time. In this study, the authors seek to answer the question of what the goals, activities, and achievements of modernity have been in Central Asia.

The present article discusses the views of Avatis Mikaelian, known as Sultanzadeh, in relation to the developments of contemporary Iranian history. Sultanzadeh is one of the most famous figures of the communist left thinkers in Iran. His ideas played a major role in the strategy and orientation of the Communist Party of Iran from the beginning of its formation until long after the Second Congress. According to Sultanzadeh, the most important problem in Iran is the economic development. He considered the unity of triple factors as the obstacle to the natural process of growth: imperialism, court and feudalism. The method of this article is descriptive-analytical and the main question is what was the difference between Sultanzadeh's view and that of other communist left activists and Soviet academics on the historical process of contemporary Iran. Sultanzadeh tried to analyze and explain the history of Iran based on the internal and global realities of the country based on Marx's doctrines. Accordingly, his views on Iran's economic development, colonization, the jungle movement, and the rise to power of Reza Shah were obvious deviations from the Soviet Communist Party theorists who considered the process of societies to be linear.

The way  Shi'a ‘ulama  dealt with the issue of political power was one of the challenges of the Safavid period. The theoretical discussions of Shi'a clerics on Imamat and government, and the presence of the monarchy as a historical-political reality, created complex problems for Shi'a scholars. The second period of the Safavid rule saw more efforts by Shi'a clerics to gain power. The main question of this research is how the efforts of the Shi'i ulama in the second period of Safavid rule have been reflected in Safavid travelogues. This research seeks to show that the growing power of the Shi'a ulama has become a matter of concern for those foreign observers and ultimately provided an analysis of those developments that are hidden in other historical sources of the period

With the recognition of the Twelver Shiite and the presence of Shi’i scholars in the Safavid court, the Sufis power was diminished. During the second period of Safavid reign, the attempt of the Safavid kings to break free of Qizilbash sovereignty, which began in the early Safavid period, became more and more and also accompanied by anti-Sufis movement of Shia scholars. The emergence of a kind of vulgarian Sufism provoked the opposition of Shi’i scholars even more and sometimes created a competition between them. Those factors led to the formation of a literature and writing of some books, which in one side were Shia jurists and on the other side Sufis. Some of those books were in the form of treatises criticizing Sufis beliefs and customs, such as Tuhfat-al-akhyar of Mullah Mohammad Tahir Qumi. And other books were generally religious included verses and narrations for Shia which in a chapter or chapters criticized Sufis’ beliefs. Among those books, we can mention ‘Ayn al-Hayat by Allamih Majlisi. The present study will explain the cultural atmosphere of the Safavid period by reviewing the anti-Sufism opinions of the two famous scholars.