سید محمدامین امامی

Tall-e-Eblis, situated in southeastern Iran, is renowned as a significant prehistoric site. Joseph Caldwell initially conducted excavations at the site, and in 1964, further excavations revealed a remarkable amount of pottery related to the Aliabad culture. Surprisingly, this evidence remained untouched for years, stored in the National Museum of Iran’s archives. Consequently, we aim to rectify this by employing archaeometric methods to investigate these items. To accomplish this, a total of 10 Aliabad pottery from the Chalcolithic period were carefully selected and subjected to analysis using petrography, XRPD, and XRF techniques. The laboratory analyses have revealed diverse production techniques despite having a common origin. The soil utilized aligns with the geological outcrop of the area, indicating the extraction and utilization of soil mines and deposits surrounding Tall-e-Eblis. Furthermore, the examined potteries are categorized within the CaO+MgO-SiO2-Al2O3 system, ranging from high silica to high calcareous pottery. Samples and Methods Samples:Our samples consist of 10 pieces that were originally discovered by Caldwell in 1964 and belong to Tall-e-Eblis and the 4th millennium BCE. Specifically, the pottery being examined comes from level C of the stratigraphic layers, which contain cultural materials from the 4th millennium BC. The examined potteries show a variety of colors, ranging from buff ware to light pink, and are characterized by a thick layer of slip on its surface. It is important to note that the buff wares have higher porosity, while the pink-colored wares have lower porosity and greater strength compared to their buff-colored counterparts. 

 To conduct a mineralogical study and microscopic examination of the samples, as well as determine the technical characteristics of the pottery, thin sections (µ30) were created for each sample. This allowed for the use of an optical polarizing microscope, specifically the Camera Dp71, Olympusbx60, manufactured in Japan, to address this matter. XRPD analysis was utilized to identify and differentiate the crystalline phases present in the samples, and to ascertain the presence or absence of phases that may not be visible in thin sections. Consequently, a 0.5-gram sample was extracted from the desired pottery for analysis.The PHILIPS PW1730 diffractometer, manufactured in the Netherlands, was utilized to conduct the testing on the samples. The XRPD examination was carried out within the range of 10 to 60 degrees (2θ = 10-60). Additionally, the data was interpreted using the X'PertHighScore Plus software version 2008 (2.2.c). To determine the chemical composition of the samples, the XRF technique was employed with the PHILIPS PW1410 instrument, also manufactured in the Netherlands. Discussion Petrography:The pottery that was examined can be categorized into two primary groups based on their texture or fabric. Some samples possess a granule or silty texture, and some samples have a coarse or porphyry texture. The matrix of all the pieces is consistent and displays green or red colors, indicating the high temperatures that the pottery was subjected to during its production. A subset of the pottery exhibits an immature silty texture, with pieces of varying sizes placed next to each other, resulting in a somewhat disordered appearance. Despite their differences in size and quantity, all the pottery shares the same composition.       Quartz mineral is the most abundant component found in pottery, present in every sample. This mineral can be found in two forms: single crystal and polycrystalline. Among these forms, the single-crystal type is more prevalent. The angular to semi-rounded border of this mineral suggests that the quartz pieces were added to the primary source secondarily. The presence of polycrystalline quartz pieces in the texture indicates their origin from granitic and metamorphic sources, implying the use of soils from the studied area. Some of the studied samples exhibit a coarse texture, in which various fillers or tempers such as igneous rock, quartz mineral, plagioclase, sanidine, muscovite, biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, and pieces of chert and igneous rock have been incorporated.       Colloidal iron accumulation is evident in the samples, and in certain cases, high oxidation conditions have occurred, indicating the iron concentration on the surface of certain pebbles. The samples exhibit empty spaces and perfectly circular holes, suggesting the release of air bubbles from the pottery texture. These spaces do not show any signs of secondary calcite, indicating the presence of a minimal amount of moisture or carbon dioxide in the underground environment.        The pottery production shows the presence of Gerag and some samples exhibit visible sanidine grains, which align precisely with the mineralogical and characteristic traits of the Kerman region. In some samples, plagioclases undergo degradation and clay formation due to the Silicification process. Additionally, alkali-feldspars are discernible in two samples. Although apatite grains are present, they are found in minimal quantities. The majority of these samples lack calcite minerals, except for one sample where a small residue of calcite remains. Calcite mineral acts as a thermometer in the firing process. This mineral decomposes at a temperature of about 800 degrees Celsius and above, so it can be concluded that the firing temperature of pottery with calcite is lower than 850 degrees Celsius. Lime is one of the cases where the texture of pottery exists and shows itself as a secondary compound, and none of them have a crystalline state, which indicates a temperature higher than 850 degrees Celsius. Minerals of the mica group (muscovite and biotite) present in the texture of pottery have lost their optical properties in some cases. This property in these minerals can be considered as a thermal indicator because, at a temperature between 950-1000 °C, it loses its mineralogical optical property and turns from orange to yellow. XPRDAll Tall-e-Eblis potsherds exhibit a prominent and significant quartz phase in their spectra, which serves as a dominant indicator. The ratio of crystalline quartz phase to carbonate phases is evident in all samples, pointing towards their texture being rich in silica. In addition to quartz, feldspars are also commonly identified in the pottery's texture, with minerals such as orthoclase, microcline, albite, anorthite, plagioclase, sanidine, anorthoclase, and labradorite being present.       Hematite can be observed in two different forms within the texture of pottery. This particular mineral is formed either as a secondary mineral during the oxidation process at high temperatures in the furnace, resulting from the release of iron in muscovite at temperatures exceeding 950 degrees Celsius. Alternatively, it can also be formed as an oxide phase at lower temperatures, primarily as a product of the oxidation process in an underground condition (Maggetti & Schwab 1982). Pyroxene, on the other hand, is a secondary mineral that forms at high temperatures. Considering that this phase typically occurs at temperatures of 900 degrees Celsius and above, it can be inferred that the pottery has been subjected to significant heat. However, during the fourth millennium BC, pottery production had not yet reached a level of advancement where they could effectively control the firing temperature of pottery kilns to achieve proper firing. Therefore, it can be considered that their pottery production was more unconscious and based on their limited progress. Glenite, another high-temperature phase, has been identified in several ceramics. The comparative analysis of XRPD data from Tall-e-Eblis reveals that the phases of these potsherds fall within a similar range and exhibit structural similarities among them. XRFBased on the findings, there is a strong correlation among the potteries, indicating that the dispersion of silica oxide, calcium oxide, aluminum oxide, and trace amounts of rubidium, strontium, etc. fall within a specific and equal range. This data suggests that the potteries share the same correlation and can be categorized together. Specifically, these potteries are classified within the CaO+MgOSiO2-Al2O3 system, ranging from high silica to high calcareous clay. The silica to alumina ratio ranges from 3.9-4.4% by weight (w%), indicating a common source of clay. The MgO values, as a real value, range from 3.9-4.5% by weight, which suggests the presence of dolomite carbonate or calcite associated with high magnesium content in calcareous rocks. The loss on ignition (LOI) measurement, which indicates the lime content in the pottery, is not significantly high, implying that the lime content in these potteries’ matrices is relatively low. (Emami et al., 2016). In terms of the main chemical composition, the pottery from Tall-e-Eblis exhibits remarkable similarities. These similarities are particularly evident in the raw materials used, matrix processing, production processes, and baking temperature. Conclusion The petrographic analysis reveals that the observed quartz fragments exhibit angular and sharp edges, providing evidence of the use of mining and grinding additives in the dough. Most of the quartz has either a metamorphic or granitic origin. Additionally, other minerals such as plagioclase, feldspar, muscovite, biotite, and pebbles have been observed. These minerals can be related to the region's geological outcrops and share a similar origin and locality to some extent.        Based on the study of the Petro-fabric of the pottery with a red and green background, it can be inferred that the pottery has been subjected to high temperatures. This suggests that the potters during the Fourth millennium BCE were able to achieve relatively high temperatures in their kilns. However, it is important to note that the artisans of that period had not yet reached a level of development where they could precisely control the temperature and conditions of the kiln.        The pottery exhibits a relatively high porosity, which can be attributed to the high firing temperature and the decomposition of organic materials or polymorphic changes. Examination of the grain size and fillers in the pottery's texture reveals variations in the kneading process. Some pottery shows well-kneaded dough, while others lack proper kneading. High-temperature phases and grains are observed in certain potteries, allowing for an estimation of the approximate temperature at which the piece was fired. The suggested average temperature range is between 850-1000 degrees Celsius. Potteries with high-temperature phases in the range of 900-1000 degrees Celsius, without exceeding 1000 degrees, and potteries with low-temperature initial phases such as calcite in the range of 850 degrees Celsius are considered.        In conclusion, it can be stated that the soil used in the pottery dough was sourced from the same location. The difference in samples is only in their manufacturing technique, which the similarity of dendrograms and PCA also proves.

Undoubtedly, one of the most important alloying elements in the ancient world is arsenic, which played an important role in the handmade alloys of the early Bronze Age. Arsenic copper alloys and arsenic bronzes undoubtedly have a special place among archaeologists and researchers of ancient metallurgy as a man-made alloy. Arsenic as a contaminating element and impurity is scattered throughout the environment and the ancient metallurgist has used it in the production of arsenic copper alloy for ritual and practical purposes. Arsenic appears as a challenging element in the production of these works as well as the special characteristics that it creates on the surface of these works. One of the most important features of this element in casting is the creation of invers segregation on the surface of these works, which creates the phenomenon of arsenic sweat in these alloys. The primary minerals used in making these alloys are Cu2(AsO4)(OH) olivine or Cu3(AsO4)(OH), iron sulfur arsenide FeAsS and Cu3AsS4 enargite, which are obtained either by direct reduction or by co-smelting. have been placed, or that arsenic was consciously used through Speiss, in the production of arsenical copper alloy in the third millennium. The extraction of arsenic metals is done by two methods direct reduction and Co-Smelting. In the direct reduction smelting method, an alloy of copper and arsenic is created from the oxide ore. But due to the fact that most of the primary ores are sulfide ores, metallurgists have used the other way around, i.e. roasting and direct smelting, which regenerates the metal. In the roasting method, oxide ore is produced and sulfur is removed from the composition in the form of sulfur dioxide, and then copper metal is regenerated by direct smelting. From the extraction of these metals, several other products are created along Co-smelting, which include Matt, Speiss and Slag. The main goal of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of extraction methods, considering the importance of copper-arsenic alloys in the field of archeology and Archaeometallurgy, Providing a comprehensive review on extraction methods, physical characteristics of these alloys and the role of arsenic and its effect as an alloying element in the formation of silver surface as well as other side products as a very important issue in the investigation of early bronze age alloys.

Rahmatbad is an important perhistoric site which located in Dasht-e Kamin in Pasargadae district, close to the Pulvar river basin in Fars province. Based on absolute C-14 dating, Rahmat-Abad is dated to the middle of the 8th millennium BC. This site is well known as one of the key perhistoric sites with a cultural sequence from pre pottery neolithic to Islamic era. 10 pieces of pottery sherds from the Neolithic period (formative Mushki and Mushki) and 5 pieces of pottery sherds from the Chalcolithic (early Middle Bakun) of Rahmatabad were investigated using petrography, XRD and XRF methods in order to compare the chemical compositions and the manufacturing progresses in pottery making during the Neolithic to Chalcolithic period. Chemical and mineralogical studies on the investigated potteries from different sequences of this site indicate a precise classification of using the same raw materials but through different techniques during the Neolithic to Chalcolithic period in Rahmat-Abad. Furthermore, the progress and development of the pottery manufacturing technique used in Rahmat-Abad might have been introduced as an important site in pioneering the pottery progressing during the Neolithic to early Middle Bakun period in Pulvar River Basin.

Earth dams can be a prehistoric phenomenon. These structures are designed to exploit surface water resources in certain positions in natural landscapes. In the plateau of Iran, surface water sources are generally seasonal. Seasons, when surface water flows abundantly, are late winter to the first half of spring. Meanwhile, according to the agricultural calendar, the peak demand for water for most agricultural products is the last month of spring and the first month of summer. According to this calendar, earth dams are generally made of natural materials such as soil and stone and are used temporarily for several months. As long as the earthen dams are made of natural materials without any changes in them, due to the naturalness of all the materials used, it is not possible to identify them not only from prehistory but also from recent centuries. But in a special case that is introduced and analyzed in this article, the construction of earthen dams with molded mud bricks in a prehistoric settlement has caused that in contemporary times, after about five thousand years, it is possible to identify and introduce the remains of the mud bricks dam with a function exactly similar to the earthen dams. This article introduces the analysis of the location and possible functions of the earth-mud bricks dam in the Damghani prehistoric site on the southeastern edge of the contemporary city of Sabzevar in Razavi Khorasan province. The earth-mud bricks dam is a mud bricks structure that is placed on a clay soil foundation and the two ends of the structure lead to natural soil mounds. In general, for such a structure, exploitation of surface water sources is suggested, but the exact type of exploitation, as will be discussed, requires additional studies. Exploitation for drinking water purposes of the Damghani prehistoric settlement, exploitation for agriculture, and simultaneous exploitation for drinking water purposes, air conditioning of settlement spaces, agriculture and animal husbandry are hypotheses that can be investigated and evaluated. Based on today's and near-contemporary examples, the third hypothesis is more likely.

The ancient bronze artifacts (archaeological objects) in various forms are one of the most important artifacts that have been discovered from excavated Bronze Age sites, southeast Iran. various bronze artefacts belonging to Bazman Spidej Cemetery one of the notable archaeological sites, Sistan and Baluchestan, Iran. More of these artifacts have been deteriorated and partially destroyed due to long-term burial environment, suffer from various corrosion occurs on the surface of or inside the bronze artifacts. this research in an attempt to study type and corrosion process, as well as the study of their corrosion stratigraphy of the six discovered bronze artifacts. In this regard, these artefacts have examined to study by analytical methods such as optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy with coupled energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and also from X-Ray diffraction (XRD) measurements to examine the corrosion stratigraphy and decuprification (selective dissolution of copper) process. The results show effect of corrosion stratigraphy, the corrosion structure indicates three inner layers in two samples and two inner layers in three samples, and also the layer of outer corrosion layer was also detected in all samples in the sample types except one sample (Spd4). In the bronze artifacts, this structure is associated with the occurrence of decuprification (selective dissolution of copper) process. and the infiltration of oxygen into the metal core in linked to the formation mechanism of tin rich layer. Therefore, the results indicate the decuprification process in all samples except one sample (Spd2). The results indicate the identification of three different corrosion phases including Cuprite, atacamite and paratacamite, which indicates bronze disease in the existing samples and also The structure of corrosion occurred in the study samples study Is related to. corrosion II type in bronze artifacts.

It has been a long time since aromatic plants and aromatic materials have been used in perfumery.Therefore, production of perfume flask had become noticeable among craftsmen and artists. The use of plants and other aromatic substances in perfumery has been possible by obtaining their essential oils. The production of perfumes are mainly derived from plants such as roses, cloves and saffron, incense and sandalwood and plant gums. Amber, musk and Azfar were also taken from some animals such as Gazelle and Amber fish. Perfume flasks are little containers made by a variety of different materials that have been shaped or embellished by standard technology and ornaments of their historical period. Glass has been one of the most favorite materials to make a perfume flask through the time. This research gives a brief overview of the history of perfumery, from the Achaemenid era to the first centuries of the Islamic era. Then it analyzes remained materials inside the five glass containers, which are considered to be perfume bottles, from the Parthian period to the first centuries of the Islamic era. These glass perfume bottles are kept in the Glassware and Ceramic Museum of Iran currently. This analysis has been done by Coupled gas chromatography with mass spectrometer in the gas chromatography laboratory of Research Institute of Medicinal Plants and Drugs, Shahid Beheshti University. The main composition which has been detected and identified are waxes, cholesterol, and natural fatty acids. Due to its sensitivity, speed, versatility, and ability to identify traces of compounds in a mixture, the GC-MS technique's application is a brilliant method for archaeological organic chemistry and can be applied to analyse any substance containing volatile organic compounds expected. In two samples of our collection, residual perfumes were extracted.For this test, the containers were first washed with n-hexane solvent and the solution was transferred into the sampling dishes for transfer to the laboratory. On the day of sampling, the objects were selected from the samples which were photographed. Then, through a Pasteur pipette, about 2 ml of n-hexane was placed in the dishes and the material was washed by rotating and the extract transferred into the pipette and prepared for the analysis by evaporating of hexane. It should be noted that n-hexane solvent has no destructive effect on the objects and because of its high volatility, immediately it will be disappeared completely and there is no trace of it in the container.Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a powerful tool for separation and identification of natural and chemical materials. In this method, after the initial preparation, the components of a mixture are injected into the device through a special syringe in the amount of half a microliter of the tested solution. The materials are separated based on the difference between the boiling point and interaction with the chromatographic column, will be entered into the Ionization Mass Spectrometry source, because of generating powerful electric and magnetic fields, the mixture’s components will be identified quantitatively and qualitatively based on their electrical charge to mass ratio (m/z). For this analysis, 1 to 3 mg of the sample was taken and 1 ml of KOH hydroalcoholic solution (potash alcohol) was added and then subjected to alkaline hydrolysis at 60 ° C for 3 hours. After hydrolysis, the neutral organic components were extracted with n-hexane. Then, according to the internal standard, injection of the solution was analyzed in GC-MS. It was then interpreted based on comparisons of components and reference materials with library items and mass spectrum. In order to identify the type of fatty acid compositions, GC-MS equipped with a DB-5 column with a length of 30 m and an inner diameter of 0.25 mm and a thin layer thickness of 0.25 μm was used. The oven temperature was increased from 60 °C to 250 °C at velocity of 5 °C/min and was kept at 250 °C for 10 minutes. Helium carrier gas with a flow rate of 1.1 ml/min was used and 70-eV electrons was used for ionization and a mass range was from 43 to 456 amu. In order to analyze the essential oil using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, the components were identified. The components and compounds were identified by the use of various parameters such as retention time (RT) and retention index (RI), study of mass spectrum and comparing the spectrum with standard compounds and basic data in the GC-MS database by Xcalibur Software. The relative percentage of each components of the essential oil was obtained according to the area under the curve in the GC. Based on the chromatogram table, the following results were obtained:Sample 1 (Table 1, Figure 1), the perfume flasks from the Arsacid era: the most important compounds identified in container No. 1 including the paraffin compounds, cholesterol (animal-based oils), vegetable oils, and fatty acids and waxes. Also, an important substance in the solution obtained from washing was flavonoid. It is a polyphenolic substance which is found in the extract obtained from the petals and pollen of plants. Sample 2 (Table 2, Figure 2), a semi-thin blue glass container, probably from the Arsacid era: the most important components identified include an essential oil, wax and fatty acid. Sample 3 (Table 3, Figure 3), a thin glass container probably from the Sassanid era: the most important compounds identified include fatty acids such as palmitic acid, stearic acid and linoleic acid. Such materials indicate that this container has been in contact with vegetable-base oils and 80% of the substances identified in this container are fatty acids. Sample 4 (Table 4, Figure 4), a semi-thin glass container from the first centuries of the Islamic period: there are only paraffin materials such as wax and beeswax and do not contain any fatty acids. The most important substance in this sample is natural linalool, which is classified as a perfume. Example 5 (Table 5, Figure 5), the perfume flask with base from the first centuries of the Islamic period: the most important compounds identified are plant-based fatty acids, paraffin compounds or waxes, and phthalate compounds.According to the tests performed in two case studies (samples No. 2 and 4), aromatic substances and essential oils are present in the identified compounds. It shows that natural perfumes and essential oils can actually stay in the glass and the adsorption of glass is very high for keep of such materials. Except for sample No. 4, other samples contain a variety of fatty acids and proved that such glasses were used as preservative objects. Wax can be seen in all samples. Fats have been identified in various forms such as cholesterol (animal base oil), palmitic acids (plant base fats) and paraffinic substances.

During an archaeological survey in the area known as Halil River cultural district, a large number of metallic slag and crucibles were found which have been scattered as residues over the surface of the site, called Chayiro II. The study on the melting slags and crucibles help to know about the metallurgical processes and the presence of copper as the main metals in this region. 10 samples have been selected for mineralogical investigations for identifying the crystalline phases, X-ray fluorescence analysis for better clustering the chemical composition as well as microscopical investigations. Copper droplets in the microscopic textures of the slags indicate the extraction of copper at this time in this region. Copper droplets have been dispersed as the crystalline form and are useful as a factor to estimate the melting temperature. The parts of the melting copper droplets found in this range also show copper casting. The igneous minerals found in the texture of crucibles show the use of an igneous source for their production as the main metallurgical vessels for purification as well as casting. Copper oxide minerals are mainly consisted of cuprite (Cu2O) and delafossite (CuFeO2) in the investigated samples. The existence of oxide minerals as melt residues indicates the melting of copper oxide in the region. Indeed, the accumulated of residues of oxide compounds are mainly the remains of an incomplete process of extraction or casting, which results in the formation of oxide copper at the last casting stage. It seems that copper oxide components are used for the production of matte or copper ingots. Based on the investigations, Kahiro II can be introduced as one of the focal points about the further consideration in this region. Copper oxides are the one of the oldest copper components that used for metal casting and extraction, via direct reduction.

Arg-e Bam, is one of the most important works of architecture and urban engineering of Iran's history. The complex consists of two parts: Sharestan (downtown) and Hakem-neshin (governor's seat). A significant monument of the governor's seat is the"Commander-in-Chief's house", which lies beyond the third fence. Despite the earthquake of 2003, significant parts of the house were not damaged or less demolished compared to the vast area of Arg-e Bam. After the earthquake the architectural, urban, and archaeological features of Bam received special attention and some research has been completed. However, the house, its chronology, architectural and structural features remained unknown.Therefore, the present research aims to study the housethrough fieldwork and library studies; also interpreting and analyzing the findings through historical method.The resultsindicate the production of high quality materials which is made up of a suitable mix of clay and adhesives, resulted in the optimal processing of clay. This led to the less damage to the architectural structures. In addition, proper architectural orders like utilizing the dominant rock bed of the governor's seat and adopting an efficient way of designing and executing some of the architectural elements and the way of transferring the forces applied to them in the piers and side openings, are some other reasons which leads to the effective reaction to the destructive earthquake forces.The Commander-in-Chief's house is one of the few buildings to be geographically opposed to the east-west direction of most the architectural units. It has a north-south direction due to the construction of an older historic tower which the house erected on top of it. Being sheltered by the governor's seat, like the barracks (Sarbaz-Khaneh) and the government stables (Establ-e-shahi), it was safe from the damages of the famous "black" storm blowing north-south. Historical and architectural evidence show that the building was built in 1258 AH in the years after the second sit-in of Agha Khan-e- Mahallati.

The distribution and trade of pottery from Ali-Abad culture, which dates back to the fourth millennium BC, can be seen in various regions of southeastern Iran, including Kerman, Makran and West Balochistan, Pakistan. . Dahno in Shahdad periphery located in the south-east of Iran, in Kerman province is not an exception, and includes this type of pottery as well. In the present study, the potteries have studied scientifically in order to find the technology and provenance of these materials by examining their microstructure and related mineralogical characterizationand. Petrography, XRD, ESEM-EDS and pXRF is appliede in order to investigate the micro-structur, mineralogy and manufacturing technique. The results of the analyzes on the pottery indicate the use of the same resources in the manufacture of these kind of potteries. By comparing them with the geological formations of the region, one can be seen that prehistoric potters of the Shahdad applied similar soils from the regional reservouire. The potteries observed can be divided into two sections in terms of matrix character; red clay  and green matrix. All of which have similar mineralogical additives. In regard to the firing temperatures, the potteries classifiede in two categories, pottery with a cooking temperature of less than 850°C, and pottery firing temperature 900°C to 1000°C.

Due to the extent of the empire’s territory, the remains of the Achaemenid stone pillars have been registered in different parts of Iran. The remains of this architectural style can be seen in the monumental set of Pasargadae, Persepolis., Naqsh-e Rostam, Lidoma and Tomb-e Bot in Fars Province, the remains of Shush in Khuzestan Province, and stone works of Ecbatana in Hamedan, Rivi Palace in Northern Khorasan Province, and Achaemenid palaces in Borazjan region in Bushehr province. The rock mining of these monuments was recognized as local. However, in Boushehr Province, two ancient mines of Pouzepalangi Rahdar and Tang-e Gir of Borazjan Region have been named. The maximum extraction and application of the crème color stones from the Puze- Palangi mine were registered from the palaces of the Borazjan Region. However, for the geological structure of the black-gray stone of Acamenian palace in Charkhab of Borazjan, samples of this type of stone were extracted from Charkhab palace. These samples were compared with the gray-black samples of the Bardak-e Siah and Sang-e Siah Palaces of Borazjan. With the petrographic studies of thin sections obtained from the palaces and chemical analysis of XRD and XRF, the structural process of the gray-black samples of the Achaemenid palaces of the Borazjan region entered a new stage. The results of the petrography studies indicate that the gray-black stone samples of Charkhab palace corresponded to the sample of Sang-e Siah Palace and Badak-e Siah, considering the microsprite and sprite background, and the few amount micrite as well as the layered structure. Also, the analysis of the analytical samples of XRD and CRF of these stones indicates that the samples of Charkhab Palance and Sang-e Siah are the same. Given that no trace was found in the mining for the gray-black stones in Boushehr Province so far, it can be then claimed that these stones were extracted from a non-local mine.

Today, the status and values of architecture and indigenous habitats and their conservation have become increasingly important, and for this reason, the idea of creating open-air museums is expanding. Despite the variety of topics, these museums have one thing in common, and that is the transfer of structures from the original location to the museum. This study is concerned with the main problem as the manner of conserving hidden values such as authenticity when moving the piece from the original location to the open-air museum. Also, with what changes would be made in the authenticity of the work and the environment around it, in terms of principles of architectural conservation, by dismantling and transportation of house components from the original location and reconstructing them in the new space and the museum?

The study aims to investigate the authenticity of the works in open-air museums and the impact of the surrounding environment on the authenticity of their spirit.

This article uses a descriptive-analytical method with documentary and field tools, and experiences obtained from the project of Guilan Rural Heritage Museum. Considering the importance of the subject, this is a fundamental-applied article.

The study found that although by separating an architectural work from its original climate and environment, the authenticity of the work’s spirit and the surrounding environment is distorted, but based on the comprehensive view of the theory of the authenticity of existence (Existentialism), the continuity of the integrated existential movement of the work towards perfection is still sought after. Also, the creation of facilities to preserve and save the body of the work in another place, providing the opportunity for people to get acquainted with architecture, customs and unwritten knowledge of architecture, and its material and spiritual information, thus justifies the change of materials and even the change of use and spatial context of the work.

Archaeological rescue project of the Silveh Dam was carried out by Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR) (952141/00/3937 – 1395/12/23) permission during about four monthschr('39') field activities. Tepe Silveh or as villager named Tepe Sheikh Esmail Silveh (N: 36° 48chr('39') 099chr('39')chr('39') – E: 45° 05chr('39') 937chr('39')chr('39') – 1567m asl) is located exactly 100 m north of the Silveh village. Tepe Silveh is located in the center of intermountain river valley on the northern margin of the village, which has already been demolished and abandoned. Main important assemblage of findings belong to painted buff and orange and as well as few grey/black pottery that introduced and reported by Tepe Silveh and Tepe Hasanlu and some other surveyed sites. No Archaeometrical and chemical-mineralogical characterization have been done yet on pottery assemplages.
Hence, 51 pottery specimens was sampled from different period and layers of the Tepe Silveh belong to Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age pottery tradition of black/gray burnished Kura-Araxes culture and as well as painted buff and red pottery traditions of Early Bronze Age of Hasanlu VII (Hasan Ali Ware) and Ninevi 5 to address such issues as its geological source, manufacturing techniques, firing and kiln conditions, local or foreign provenience, determination of sharing and segregation between different groups of pottery. To determine the crystalline constituents, different mineralo-chemical investigations were undertaken. The major phase compositions of the pottery assemblages were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), and for thermography DTA were used. Also, the thin-section of the pottery was analyzed by optical microscopy techniques so as to petrographic identification of the minerals. The result of phase identification and petrographic analysis showed that the studied pottery is similar in terms of composition and mineralogy but are completely different in terms of morphology, baking technique and color as well as kiln conditions. According to the similarity of the main structural combination and characterization of black – gray pottery assemblage with the geological structure of the region it should be suggested that this type of pottery produced locally in the Piranshahr or close adjacent region that is not very far from the site that in terms of geological structure and charectrization have similar compounds with Tepe Silveh Pottery. Also, due to the complete match of thermal analysis with the results of petrography and X-ray diffraction analysis, the baking and firing temperature in all samples can be estimated at 850 °.

Kandovan historical village is one of the most important attractive tourist sites on rocky architectures in East Azerbaijan province from the Skirts of Sahand Volcano NW of Iran. This village with unique landscape and rocky historical architecture is on the surfaces of a tuff layer. Nowadays, natural surface weathering of this architecture and intensity of decay phenomena in Kandovan village rocks causes of poor living conditions, ruination, and seasonal residence or nonresidential conditions. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the consolidation effectiveness of volcanic tuff-stone on Kandovan rocky architecture. For this propose petrographical, physical and mechanical properties of natural, weathered and treated rocks such as distribution of minerals, bulk density and total porosity, dry and saturated unit weight, water absorption, capillary absorption, slake-durability index and uniaxial compressive strength UCS; with different improvement materials are characterized using polarized microscope,  and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD)). The improvement materials Nano silicate (NS) and Ethyl Silicate (ES). 
The results show that Kandovan lithic tuffs have poor durability and are very sensitive to predisposing factors to deterioration and this inherent vice instead to harsh climate caused the erosion of surface weathering. It can be seen that both consolidated materials retrofitting and improving the Kandovan stone conditions, and these materials increased rock strength compared to weathered and fresh stone samples.

The rock art heritages all across Iran have a exceptional importance compared to the rock arts of the world. For example, the Bistoon rock art complex is listed on the World Heritage Sites and some others, like Naghsh-e-Rustam, are located in the cultural landscape of World Heritage. The entities of such rock heritages to an evolving environment, have been threatened, especially with the increase in air pollutants. Threats of Environmental Pollutants might have endangered the Integration of these Cultural Landscapes. The presence of these pollutants is due to the presence of large and small pollutant industries, especially petrochemical complexes. For the first step, it is necessary to evaluate different methods of monitoring air pollutants on rock cultural heritage. Various methods of environmental measurements have been used to assess the condition of the rock heritage. These monitoring techniques can be divided into direct and indirect methods. The main research question is about the advantages and disadvantages of each of these two methods for choosing the suitable rock heritage monitoring system. In this article, next to gathering information from objective observations and theoretical studies, the data were obtained through qualitative analysis. In this article, after examining the characteristics of these two methods, the type of direct monitoring required has been identified to identify air pollutants and control the rock heritage. Meanwhile, new conservation experiences in historic sites can reduce concerns about energy infrastructure constraints and reduce the cost of continuous monitoring of rock heritage. Therefore, the results will be applied in addition to having fundamental and theoretical values.

Seven pieces of celadon from a recent excavation in the historical ruins of port of Harireh in Kish Island in Iran have been studied in order to characterize the wares. Investigations were carried out on the body as well as the glaze of celadons. Celadon samples were investigated petrologically and chemically by polarized light microscopy (LM), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), quantitative X-ray diffraction with Rietveld refinement (QXRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and simultaneous thermos-analytic (STA) in order to understand their manufacturing process The amount of FeO as the main glaze constituent and K in the body is quantitatively calculated for possible modelling of technology as essential know-how. Based on the Na2O and CaO constituents, celadons show high similarities to the wares made in China-Kiln. The mineralogical composition of the pottery proves that the firing temperature of celadon was about 1200-1300ºC. Production technology of the celadon potteries has been evaluated by means of suitable raw materials which have not been fitted in south Iranian coastal Gulf.

Kandovan historical village, located in the vicinity of Osku town, is one of the most important attractive Geoheritage sites in East Azerbaijan province in Iran, thanks to the hewn-cut houses from Sahand Mountain. The rocky architecture of Kandovan, from a geological point of view, is on the surfaces of a thick Ignimbrite layer, which, due to natural weathering and erosion along the main joints and discontinuities of Kandovan valley, have created conical forms and structures. From a conservation point of view, these deterioration factors have resulted in poor living conditions, abandonment and seasonal residence in these rocky houses. Compared to the other Igneous rocks, Tuff (ignimbrite) is a light rock with a high ratio of porosity and proper workability. Therefore, it has been used in the construction of many stone heritage buildings in different countries. This kind of stone, therefore, requires permanent care and maintenance. Over the past half century, in response to the decay and damage of these monumental stone houses, villagers used Portland cement (as an accessible and useful material in construction industry) for repair and maintenance of their rocky houses. Given the differences in terms of porosity, thermal and humidity expansion coefficient between Kandovan volcanic tuffs and cement and also due to other characteristics of cement like continuous generation of destructive salts, it became one of the destructive forces of the Kandovan heritage site.
`The aim of this study is to develop a vernacular mortar to replace sand-cement mortar in order to sustain conservation in Rock-hewn Architecture of Kandovan historical village. For this purpose, the study was carried out with field and laboratory investigations; the fieldwork was conducted from the perspective of pathology and identifying the causes of damage. Different modes of water were identified as the main deterioration factors. In order to protect the surface and using mortars in the outer surfaces exposed to erosion and also filling the cracks and structural joints, 24 type of mortar were prepared. Mortar type specimens were made by mixing (fine-grained sand, wood ash, Pozzolanic and soil), binder (hydrated lime) and water. All of the samples prepared were in the cubical forms.
In order to determine the most resistant mortar type, three accelerated aging tests, including salt crystallization attack with sodium sulphate anhydrous (Na2SO4) as well as wetting and drying and freezing and thawing cycle tests were performed. The results show that Pozzolanic lime mortar (PLM), prepared by mixing crushed Kandovan tuff, wood ash, and lime paste as a binder, exhibits high resistant against the aging process. In the next step, characterization and comparative study between Kandovan tuffs and PLM was carried out via X-ray powder diffraction and the relevant physical–mechanical properties of that were determined by measuring the capillary water absorption, water absorption on atmospheric pressure, P wave ultrasonic velocity, void index dry density, total porosity content, compressive strength and slake durability. The results demonstrated that Kandovan tuff stone has poor durability and high sensitivity to predisposing factors to deterioration, such as wetting and drying and freezing-thawing cycles. Furthermore, our results show that the mechanical properties and resistance of PLM are as twice as and its density is half of that in Kandovan tuffs. Therefore it can be used for conservation and repair and replace cement in Kandovan village.

In medieval Islamic Iran, mina was known as a general term for enameling metal, glass and ceramic. Consequently, in modern times Mina’i is one of the most important types of Islamic ceramic production and identified by stone paste body and multicolored polychrome over-glazes which represent figural, geometric and floral designs as well as calligraphic perform. Additionally, Mina’i wares are in some cases enlightened as gilded surface. The style can be found in numerous forms that include bowls, ewers, cups, beakers, jugs, inkstands and tiles. They are often referred to as “Haft-Rang” (seven-color) ceramics due to their polychromic character. The colors were red, brown, cobalt blue, green, black, white and gold. It was believed, until quite recently, that one of these seven colors, namely cobalt blue, was painted not over, but in the glaze, and all the others were painted over. These often finely painted wares are believed to have originated in Seljuq Iran during the late twelfth to the early thirteenth century, but there are no contemporary accounts of their production. Little is known about the manufacturing process of Minai ware, because no contemporary literature has yet been found. The earliest literature that mentions Minai ware is Abu’l Qasim Kashani’s Treatise on ceramics, which was written in 1301 or earlier, and the technique for Minai multicolored enamels (called ‘seven-colored’ in the literature) had already been lost Potters in Iran (Persia) began to produce a special type of pottery, that was decorated with multicolored enamels over an opaque white or turquoise base glaze as well as painted applications of blue, turquoise, black, red, pink, purple, white, brown, and green glaze in or over base glaze. Mina’i wares are in some cases enlightened with gold flake surface and applied relief. When Abu¯’l Qasim wrote his treatise on ceramics in 1301, the technology of Minai wares had been lost but gilding technology on the other types of ceramic such as lajajvardina and tiles was continued. The main production site for Minai ware is believed to be Kashan in Iran, which was the main ceramic production center at that time, and several pigment sources are also found there. Besides Kashan, Sava, Rayy and Natanz are also believed to have been production sites, although the vessels still cannot be related to these sites individually. Recent excavations in Alamut Castle caused to discovery of many complete Mina’i wares and sherds. In this research, 7 Mina’i sherds that excavated from Rayy and Alamut castle were analyzed with optical microscopy and chemical composition analysis, were measured using scanning electron microscopy and micro PIXE to characterize and identify the process and composition of gilded Mina’i wares. This paper focuses on defining the elemental composition of gold findings in order to identify gilding process and the gold/ceramic adhesion mechanism. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations showed that pure gold leaves were directly fired on a substrate glaze. In addition, a red ochre and black pacified glazed line surrounded over and under the gilded areas. Although the presence of gold layer under heated the red ochre pacified drawing lines shows thermal process on the gold leaf but over red or black accent drawing glaze, in some parts, demonstrated that the gold leaf was applied after drawing the red lines and maybe after firing, there was no evidence to show these lines had been fired either in the same time with other over glaze decorations or later. The results support that gilding decoration was using both mechanical as well as thermal process for adhesion mechanisms between gold leaf and its substrate. All the results of this research confirm Abulaqasim’s writings concerning gilding process.

The Production of iron- bronze bimetallic artifacts is one of the techniques of the Bronze Age to the Iron transitional period. In this research, in order to assess the alloy composition and method of production, two iron-bronze bimetallic objects in the site of Ziviyeh have been studied as one of the important Iron Age sites in Iran. The microstructure of the cross section of objects, the phases and metallic and nonmetallic inclusions was studied by the optical microscope (OM) and the scanning electron microscope equipped with an elemental analysis (SEM-EDX). The results shows the ferrite-pearlite microstructure and preferred orientation of inclusions in substrate of base metal that is decorated with bands of tin- bronze alloy. The amount of carbon in different parts of the body of objects is not the same. Dendritic microstructure and distribution of gas holes in copper phase of bronze strips confirmed the use of casting-on technology in production of bronze layers. Fine grains and twin lines in the outer edges of bronze strips are the result of final hot working.

The mineralogical and chemical investigation of ancient slag is of high importance for economic mineralogist and archaeometalurgist. These investigations reveal information, which is of general historical and mineralogical interest. Over than 95% of metallic reservoirs have proved antiquity evidences. By using mineralogical-petrographical studies on metallurgical slag as an object from the ancient world, it could be enhance to understanding about the major and trace elements via metal extraction.
The basin of Halil Rood (Halil River) is privileged to have a rich civilization. Many objects as well as metallurgical evidences belonging to the third millennium BC have been discovered in this district during the archeological excavations. Kerman – Rabor – Jiroft district is of great interest due to the archaeometallurgical signs in south-west Iranian desert and belong to the Halil Rood region. This district is important according to the enrichment of polymetallic hydrothermal ore reservoir such as Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn, Ag and Au in south and south-west of Zagros orogeny. Several scientists have been focused on this region, as one of the born place of metallurgy in the ancient World [1]. The primary aim of this study was the characterization of extracted metals and the methods of smelting. The objects to be discussed here are mostly copper slag as well as ores. 20 local mining- and metallurgical places have been found through recently archaeometallurgical expedition. These places are mainly consisted of slag-heap, fireplaces and ore deposition, which are remarked possibly as passage-metallurgy along south Iranian desert.

Glass is one of the oldest materials which have been used in human history. Till nowadays, glass has not lost its attraction. The macroscopically character of this object make it usable for many different applications. Whether its transparency or its opacity, this object is the most fascinating material. Indeed, the history of glass making goes back to the 3th Millennium BC in Near East and Levant, but the early supported documentation with regard to the fabrication of this material goes back to the 2th Millennium BC. The glass wires from Chogha Zanbil are the unique and most considerable objects from Elamite period (2th Millennium BC). Chogha Zanbil glass wires are also known as the first evidence for glass-making in the second millennium BC in Iran and are of particular importance due to their material characteristics, manufacturing technique, their form and style. In this research, two pieces of glass wares belonging to the 2nd millennium BC from Chogha Zanbil, in the Abadan Museum, were subjected to chemical and structural investigations. The main question discussed in this paper is to determine the chemical composition as well as crystalline phase constituents of these materials, technological features and determining the firing temperature of these glass objects. QPXRD method was used to identify the crystalline structure of these materials. The microstructure and texture of the objects were studied and analyzed using ESEM-EDX method. Firing temperature of these wires was investigated by means of simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) method in order to estimate the manufacturing temperature. Mineralogical chemical studies indicate that these objects are in fact high-temperature ceramics, which have a glassy fabric. It occurs when the heating temperature passed the transition state. Glass transition relates to the transition from the solid state to the liquid state (or the reverse one). It is basically a kinetical phenomenon. It denotes to the so-called "structural relaxation". If the structural relaxation has time enough to happen during the statement time, the material behaves as a liquid. If the structural relaxation cannot occur during experience time, then the material behaves as a rigid -or semi rigid- solid. The external and internal layer of glasses seems to be a crystalline part with the effect of both sintering and partial smelting. The manufacturing temperature of these materials has reached about 1000-1100 ºC, and it has led to the glazing effects of glass on their surface.

The influence of firing conditions on the mineralogical composition of clay base ceramics is studied. Experimental samples fired in oxidation atmosphere at temperature rates 850, 900, 950, 1000 and 1050AWT IMAGE with respect to high amount of CaO in raw materials (Ave. 18.76 %), these samples classified in Ca-rich clay group. The determination of chemical composition, phase structure and mineralogy were carried out by thin section petrography through Pol. Microscopy, XRF, XRD with Rietveld refinement method, TGA and mercury immersion porosimetry. The results show that the amount of quartz and the percentage of porosity are diminished with increasing of temperature. The presence of gehlenite, diopside, augite and wollastonite at 850AWT IMAGE and fassaite (at 950AWT IMAGE) are demonstrated formation of firing products. The results suggest that quantitative investigation on mineralogical changes and the co-existence of phases in experimental specimens, can provide appropriate pattern for estimating firing temperature and technology of archaeological potteries.

Enamel-painted ceramic from the medieval Persia (so-called haft rang/ mina’i ware) refers to a group of Islamic ceramics believed to have originated at late Seljuk and early Kharazmshahid dynasty (1179-1219 A.D.) in Iran. These wares characterized by stonepaste body and polychrome overglazes which represent. mina’i ceramic is one of the most important types of Islamic ceramic productions and identified by stonepaste body and multicolored polychrome over-glazes which represent figural, geometric and floral designs as well as calligraphic inscriptions. Additionally, mina’i wares are in some cases enlightened as applied relief and gilded surface. The style can be found in numerous forms including bowls, ewers, cups, beakers, jugs, inkstands and tiles. They are often referred to as “Haft-Rang” (seven color) ceramics due to their polychromic character. The colors were red, brown, cobalt blue, green, black, white and gold. It was believed, until quite recently, that one of these seven colors, namely cobalt blue, was painted not over, but in the glaze, and all the others were painted over. Suggested production centers for mina’i are Sava, Rayy and Kashan. While stylistic arguments have attributed the classification of objects to each of these sites, there is little archaeological evidence to support any of the claims. It has been argued that their style and imagery are reflected from Islamic manuscripts and wall paintings. Mina’i wares are very interesting to research not only in term of ceramic history and painting, but in Islamic ceramic technology. Much of our current understanding of minai techniques, and of medieval Islamic ceramic technology in general, comes from the only known treatise was written in 1301 A.D (70 A.H) by Abul'-Qasim Kashani. It is said that the "seven-colored technology passed into oblivion" by the time of the treatise. The study focuses on literature review and on observing the visual samples. Here four pieces of mina’i ware were sampled from Rayy and Alamut castle in Iran, which has been investigated through surface analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy complemented with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometers (SEM-EDX) and particle induced X-ray emission (micro-PIXE) and micro-RBS to characterize and identify the applied relief layers and gilding surfaces. This research focuses on defining the compositions of these surfaces. Interpretation through analytical methods allows obtaining more information about the historical methods and several layers that show technological evidence of overglaze method in mediaeval Persia. This paper focuses on defining the elemental composition of gold findings and relief in order to identify gilding process and the gold/ceramic adhesion mechanism. The results support that gilding decoration was using both mechanical as well as thermal process for adhesion mechanisms between gold leaf and its substrate. The other result suggests that reliefs were added over the base glaze layer to be observed between the body and the applied relief.

The main aims of this study is the characterization, introduce and typology survey the Rocky Architecture in Skirts of Sahand Volcano from the East Azerbaijan province NW Iran. For this purpose, according to fieldwork investigation and documentary Studies include: to describe the current situation for recognizing interaction of rocky architecture in the skirts of Sahand volcano. The results of the survey were recorded and collect the data from 113 rocky architectures around the Sahand Mountain on the border of the townships of East Azerbaijan province include: Tabriz, Azarshahr, Ajabshir, Bonab, Hashtrod, and Bostonabad. According to the existing archeological theory, Sahand rocky architectures were residential from the first millennium BC till now; and in the morphological point of view, it is separable from surface architecture, underground architecture and combination type of the two previous species. In general, the obtained results demonstrate that Sahand rocky architectures can divided to five categories from application typology include: 1) residential and settlement architectures, 2), Public architectures, 3) Religious and ritual architecture 4) Military architecture and 5) Other applications, Nowadays, such reasons like changing the life styles and decay process cause of poor living conditions, ruination, and seasonal residence or reusing in most rocky architectures in this area have been.

The deterioration of ancient porous materials due to the dehydration and crystallization of water-soluble salts is a well-known phenomenon. Salt crystallization is an important factor in the deterioration of ancient ceramics and will almost always cause some degree of damage, ranging from exfoliation of the glaze to complete disintegration of the body. To avoid any ultimate damage of aggressive salts, it is very important the essential desalination process be accomplished within a short period of time because of the direct contact of the historical porous material with water. Since EC is proportional to the concentration of ions, therefore desalination process can be monitored by EC readings. In this paper, it was documented that Electrical Conductivity (EC) is an accurate, reliable, fast and simple method for monitoring of salt extraction during desalination process. To validate this method, 52 experimental runs, designed by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) have been performed. RSM is carried out by Minitab software, version 16. Independent parameters in this research are firing temperature, immersing time, agitation rate, type, and concentration of surfactant. Calcium ion was selected as an indicator of soluble salts and measured through Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Electrical conductivity and calcium ion concentration are measured as desirable responses. The correlation between Ca2 concentration and EC readings was also investigated. Pearson correlation between EC and extracted Ca2 is .923 with p-value = 0.000 and linear function between these parameters are observed with approximately 96% goodness of the fit. Therefore, EC is introduced as a suitable indicator for monitoring of salt removal efficiency in the immersing system method. This monitoring method is recommended for determining the end point of desalination process especially in archaeological sites and restoration workshops where a reliable, and fast method is most desirable.