فاطمه سخی

In recent years, the non-agricultural sector has been recognized as a tool to reduce rural poverty and create employment for the rural labor. In Iran, non-agricultural activities in rural areas due to recent droughts, water resources crisis and the tendency of rural youth to non-agricultural activities has grown so much that according to the census of Population and housing in 2017, 49.7% of rural employees have been employed in the non-agricultural sector. This study investigates the factors affecting on employment of farmers in non-agricultural activities in Sabzevar city. Data were obtained of simple random available sampling method from 208 farmers in this city in the year 2021-2022 and were analyzed using the logit model.The results showed that 112 people of farmers had non-agricultural activities, of which about 19.6% had government activities, 30.4% were private, and the largest number of farmers are freely engaged in non-agricultural activities. The results of the logit model showed that factors, including the level of education and the number of members of the farmer's household, have a positive effect, and the variables of the age of the farmer, the cultivation level, the experience of agricultural activity, the diversity of agricultural activity and the amount of agricultural income have a negative effect on farmers' employment in non-agricultural activity. The government take action by raising the level of technical and skill abilities of villagers by providing technical and professional education services in accordance with the creation of entrepreneurship in rural areas at the level of schools and universities.

The agricultural products insurance is an efficient way to reduce the risk of activity in this field, which seeks to improve the economic productivity of the agricultural sector by encouraging farmers to insure their products. The success of it also depends on the farmers' willingness to produce insurance. Considering the importance of insurance in reducing risk and stabilizing the income of farmers, this research has investigated the factors affecting the decreased demand for wheat in Torbat Jam city. This research was conducted by completing questionnaire and sampling method available from 198 people from all wheat farmers of this city in the year of 2020-2021 and it was analyzed using logit model. Based on the information obtained from the Agricultural Jahad of this city, 72 of the farmers in the sample have taken out insurance for the wheat. The results of the showed that factors including the level of education, the area under cultivation of wheat, the years of history of the farmer facing the risk, the timely payment of compensation by the agricultural products insurance fund and the completeness of the level of coverage have a negative effect, and on the other hand, the variables of the amount of income from the sale of wheat, having sources of income other and the distance to the insurance office from the farmers' residence have a positive effect on not applying for insurance by the wheat farmers of this city. it is appropriate to the classification of agricultural risks according to regions.

The real exchange rate, which measures the changes in relative prices and costs with a common currency, is the most important measure of competitiveness. Thus, in this study, relying on the available evidence and the econometric model, the determinants of the behavior of the real exchange rate in the Iranian economy were examined. For this purpose, firstly, the real exchange rate was calculated and then, using the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM), the impact of important economic factors on it was analyzed during the period of 1978-2018. The findings indicated the continuous downward trend of the real exchange rate during the last two decades (except for the years 2011, 2016 and 2017), which led to a decrease in the competitiveness of domestically produced products compared to imported goods, and this decrease was caused by the adjustment of the exchange rate. The nominal currency is disproportionate to the difference in domestic and foreign inflation. The study findings showed the negative effect of oil export income and non-oil trade balance variables and the positive effect of the money volume to budget deficit variable in the long term on the real exchange rate. It is recommended that the calculated real exchange rate and the analysis of its behavior pattern used in the present study to estimate the equilibrium exchange rate in order to evaluate economic policies such as agricultural policies.

 Various studies have shown that changes in rainfall due to climate change can affect the stability of food supply and in fact climate change by increasing the prevalence and severity of drought or flood, crop yields, food access and also effect food prices. According to the FAO, Iran's food security rank is 82 out of 125 countries in the world, and one of the reasons for this rank is the excessive waste of agricultural products in Iran. As a result, citing a wide range of previous studies, it has been documented that the impact of climate change on food security for countries that are more dependent on agriculture is largely negative and has significant effects. Therefore, in present study, citing theoretical foundations and foreign and domestic studies conducted in the field of food security especially in Iran, factors such as food prices, climate change, household income, exchange rate and targeted subsidy policy as factors affecting selected food security and their effect on food security of urban households in Iran were studied.

 In this study, it was our goal to find the effects of food price variables, climate change, household income, exchange rate and targeted subsidy policy on food availability by estimating single equations of the food security index.In this study, based on the subject literature and available information, the self-explanatory model with wide intervals (ARDL) and the error correction model (ECM) introduced by boys and colleagues have been used to examine integration and estimate short-term and long-term relationships between variables. Data required for the present study, regarding the open market exchange rate and food prices (food and beverages) from official statistics based on the annual reports of the Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the necessary information to calculate the food security index of households and average household income from detailed results Expenditure and income of urban households of the Statistics Center of Iran, for the period 1398-1399 has been extracted.

 The results showed that in the long run, a one percent increase in food prices reduces the food security index of Iranian urban households by 21 percent. As expected, the coefficient of variable climate change has a negative and significant effect on the food security index, and with its increase, the production of food and agricultural products decreases, and as a result, the food security index decreases. The growth rate of free market exchange rate with a negative sign at the level of one percent is significant. Since the agricultural industry in Iran is an industry highly dependent on imports. As a result, the increase in the exchange rate increases the price of agricultural products and affects food security. Annual household income has a positive and significant effect on household food security index. By increasing household income and assuming its appropriate distribution in society, it can be concluded that urban households are faced with increased purchasing power and ability to meet their food needs, and this variable has a positive effect on energy status and food security. The virtual variable of the years of implementation of the law on targeted subsidies is also significant at the level of 10% with a negative sign. The results show that in the long run, the implementation of this law has reduced the activity of farmers due to rising prices of agricultural inputs and energy carriers, this issue leads to a decrease in domestic food production and thus increases their prices and ultimately reduces food security of households. The estimated coefficient of ecm (-1) is equal to the negative value of 0.42 and is statistically significant at 1% probability level. The value of this coefficient indicates that each year 0.42% of the imbalance of one period of food security of urban households in Iran in the next period is adjusted.

 Given the negative effect of food price index and exchange rate on food security of urban households, the application of appropriate exchange rate policies can be very effective in reducing inflation, especially food price inflation, which threatens the country's food security. With increasing investment, domestic food production is approaching self-sufficiency in this sector, in which case food prices will be subject to domestic supply and demand, and to some extent will be protected from exchange rate fluctuations and food imports, and this will create food security and prosperity. The economy in the country will help a lot. Given the negative effect of targeted subsidies, a review of the implementation of targeted subsidies policy to establish food security for households is proposed. To reduce the negative effects of climate change on food security, selective strategies must focus on addressing the adverse effects of climate change and food insecurity. Educating and strengthening public belief in climate change and water crisis, formulating long-term and short-term plans and policies for water resources management under climate change conditions with the participation of all relevant organizations and moving towards modern methods can be effective in reducing the effects of climate change.

Climate change is one of the main and most important factors affecting ecosystem characteristics. The climate change caused by the increase of greenhouse gases is influenced by human activities and industrialization of countries, which leads to increased global warming and natural disasters such as floods and droughts, and the consequences of migration, hunger, poverty, etc., and Indirectly affecting the economy, society and agriculture. Climate change is an obstacle to poverty reduction and sustainable economic development. In this context, assessing how climate change is important in reducing poverty. This study evaluates the impact of climate change on selected poverty from Middle Eastern countries, including Iran in the period (2000-2015). Panel fixed effect model to estimate poverty (malnutrition and infant mortality rates) were selected. The findings of the study indicate the negative effect of variables such as percentage change in forest area, improving access to health, electricity, healthy water sources and food production index on poverty indicators and the positive effect of carbon dioxide emissions on the variables of malnutrition. According to the results, special managerial decisions should be made to improve access to safe water, especially in rural areas, electricity and sanitation, and, on the other hand, by protecting forest areas, attempts to reduce unnecessary exploitation and destruction of these resources. It is also necessary to take measures and policies to reduce poverty, taking into account the socio-economic conditions of countries and the climate.

Western sanctions against the Russian Federation and the Russian Federation's retaliation in 2014 and sanctions on food imports from the West, including the European Union, the United States, Australia, Canada and Norway, suggest that there may be changes in Russian consumers' preferences for cucumber. Imported from Iran has occurred. The present study tests this hypothesis using a nonparametric method based on the Generalized Axiom of Revealed Preferences (GARP). In this regard, price and quantity data related to the import of Russian Federation cucumbers from Iran and the countries that had the most exports of this product to Russia (Turkey and China); Reviewed for the period 2017-2000. The results of the study show that a significant structural change in the preferences of Russian consumers occurred in 2003 in favor of Iranian cucumber, which indicates the stability and loyalty of Russian consumers to cucumbers imported from Iran. Finally, the political disputes between the Russian Federation and Turkey have provided a good opportunity to develop the export of Iranian products in the market of the Russian Federation. Ensuring the production of quality cucumbers throughout the year and not changing government policies on exports can help increase Iran's share of the Russian Federation market.

Due to the problems and diseases caused by pollutants due to the existence of industrial centers in Ardakan city, it is necessary to find solutions such as installing air filters, taxing pollutants and increasing fuel prices to eliminate or reduce pollution, according to the profitability of companies in To be considered. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide a solution to green tax to reduce environmental risks. In this study, Contingent Valuation method was used in the form of two-dimensional technique and logit econometric model. Also, to collect data from 608 questionnaires in order to pay people in 1396 in two parts: air pollution caused by factories and installation of signs and banners in the city to encourage people to use public transport and identify vehicles with defects Have technical, was used in Ardakan city. The results showed that the willingness of people to pay to reduce air pollution from factories is 32800 Rials and to reduce air pollution from transportation is 28650 Rials per person per month. The variables of car air pollution fines and rising fuel prices have a positive and significant effect on people's willingness to pay. Also, the variables of the proposed amount and income are the most important influential factors in both sectors. In total, the amount of green tax resulting from the two polluting sectors of industry and transportation in Ardakan city is 72,235 million rials per year, which can be used to establish non-governmental organizations to reduce air pollution.

Consumer behavior and preferences among households’ milk may be in different time periods, different. It is important to change behavior in the studied time period specified by identifying changes in people's behavior, can be used to evaluate policy payments made or implemented new policies. The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural stability or break of Iranian consumers’ preferences for pasteurized and non-pasteurized milk. In this regard, using the cost and income statistics of urban and rural households’ in Iran Statistics Center in the period 1990-2016. Also to analyze household preferences, from a non-parametric pre-disclosed test (WARP) and Kruskal-Wallis statistics (K-W) have been used to distinguish permanent structural changes from fleeting shocks. For this purpose, the matrix of poorly expressed preferences was compiled using the average price and quantity of pasteurized and non-pasteurized milk in urban and rural areas, and by comparing consumer choices in different time periods. The results of the WARP matrix indicate a contradiction in the preferences of consumers of both pasteurized and non-pasteurized milk. In other words, the rational behavior of consumers of pasteurized milk and non-pasteurized milk is rejected in Iran. Also, the results of the K-W statistic indicate a structural change in 1995, indicating a structural failure in the preferences of Iranian consumers for milk. As a result, in future studies, it is suggested that special attention be paid to behavioral economics and consumer preferences for important products such as milk.

Hunger, food insecurity and poverty is the most important critical issues in some countries. Of all the rights given to a community's basic household needs, "food security" is one of the most important individual needs that governments are responsible for providing. International trade can reduce food insecurity in countries by facilitating access to larger markets, Hence, food trade could be regarded as the solution to world food security. Thus for global food security, food trade is vital. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between international trade and food security in the group of high-middle income countries including Iran during the period of 2002–2016 using a random-effects panel econometric approach. The results show that there is a U-shaped relationship between the two variables of food security and international trade. It indicates that food security declines in the early stages of trade development and increases beyond a certain threshold. Based on the findings of the study, suggestions have been made to improve the relationship between food security and international trade that need to be considered by policy makers.

The financial sector plays a central role in economic growth and development, as well as a mediating role in allocating resources to all sectors of the economy, by reducing financing costs and encouraging savings and efficient use of them. Given global warming and global climate change simultaneously with the goal of achieving optimal economic growth, attention to environmental protection and reduction of environmental pollutants is one of the policy makers' concerns. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of environmental quality indices on financial development indicators in Iran during the period 1970-2015 using the seemingly unrelated Regression model. For this purpose, some environmental quality indicators, including agricultural production, population density, carbon dioxide emissions, energy use, and three indices of financial development including broad money supply, domestic credit to the private sector, and consumer price index were used, which were estimated separately for each of the financial development indices. The results showed that population density and energy consumption had a positive and significant effect on financial development indicators. On the other hand, carbon dioxide emissions, agricultural production and fossil fuel energy use have a significant and negative effect. Considering the findings of this study can play an important role in sectoral policy making and reducing the effects of environmental degradation by economic sectors. These results are important for policymakers in designing energy resource management policies and sustainable financial and economic development.

Public health has always been one of the main concerns of policy makers in different countries, while the speed of economic growth that has led to an increase in emissions of polluting the environment has added to this issue. OPEC member countries are turning to the expansion of the industry based on their oil revenues, which has added to the problems caused by degradation of environmental quality and the level of public health. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between economic growth, environmental quality and general health in OPEC member countries, which is estimated using panel models for the years 2016-2000. The results of estimating economic growth models, environmental quality and public health among OPEC members showed that increased economic growth does not improve the environment and there are no conditions for accepting the Kuznets environmental hypothesis. Increasing and improving the accumulation of per capita capital, urbanization rates, public health and education will increase economic growth. In the health sector, promoting health education and increasing the share of per capita health expenditure and reducing CO 2 emissions will improve public health. Therefore, it is recommended that the national development models of the member states contribute to the sustainability of oil revenues in all sectors of the economy.

The aim of study was to investigate the factors influencing the choice of the type of contract of sale of cotton by farmers in the city of Gonbad-e Kavus in Golestan province. The sample of 200 farmers was randomly selected for the study and cross-sectional data were collected using the questionnaires and interviews. To achieve the above-mentioned purposes, the multinomial logistic regression is used. The results of this study showed that in the cross-sectional 2014-2015, common contracts for sales of the cotton product were including Cash, Amani, and Forward contracts. Also, 42%, 36% and 22% of cotton farmers sold their cotton by Cash, Amani, and Forward contracts respectively. Also the results of the multinomial logistic regression showed that marketing agents, the risk perception cotton market index, and risk aversion index variables have a significant positive effect on the choice of the type of Amani and Forward contracts than cash contract and on the other hand education level, work experience in agriculture, farm ownership, cotton acreage, non-farm income, and precautionary savings variables have a significant negative.

Exchange rate volatility is one of the major constraints to trade. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of exchange rate volatility on trade in agricultural products in the period 1980-2012. For measurement real exchange rate volatility of symmetrical patterns, non-linear and asymmetric GARCH estimated.Ultimately EGARCH (Exponential) coefficient which indicated the presence of asymmetry in exchange rate volatility as a model for the index of exchange rate volatility was selected.To investigate the relationship between variables in the equations, Johansen Juselius vector error correction model (VECM) is used. The results of the model estimates shows that, in the long run, exchange rate volatility had negative effect on exports of agricultural products.Other results also shows that foreign currency revenues earned from exporting oil had negative effect on the export and import of agricultural products. Gross domestic product, in the long-term, had negative and significant effect on imports of agricultural products.Decreasing the exchange rate volatility and targeting it in a reasonable boundary according to economic conditions could enhance agricultural export and increase the potential for planning of production.

This study examines the relationship between trade oppeness and environment performance index by cross-country analysis in 2007 for 73 countries. For this purpose Countries of the World Bank classification based on gross national income and the high income and low income groups are divided. A separate analysis for exports، imports، domestic and foreign direct investment to these countries in different experimental models have been proposed and studied and evaluated. Regression results show that trade liberalization in countries with higher income will increase environmental quality While in low-income countries will reduce the quality of the environment. In both group of countries human capital has direct and positive effect on environmental performance index.