فهرست مطالب محمد کافی

The increasing demands for pulse crops and the lack of water resources in most parts of Iran, especially in dry areas, need to employ new strategies to increase water productivity of pulse crops. One of the new methods in managing water and soil resources is the use of zeolite as a storage tank, which prevents wastage and increases the efficiency of irrigation water particularly in light soils. The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of different amounts of zeolite and irrigation interval on growth and yield indices in Pak cultivar of white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).
 

This research was conducted in order to investigate the effect of different amounts of zeolite and irrigation interval on the growth and grain yield in Pak cultivar of white bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), in a split plot design based on randomized complete block design with three replications in a farm located in the bojnord city - north Khorasan in the agronomic year 2023-2024. The study factors included 7, 10 and 13 days irrigation interval in the main plot and three levels of zeolite in the soil (0 (no use), 5 and 10 t.ha-1) in the sub plots. Data were analyzed using SAS 9.4 statistical package and figures were drawn by Excel program. Mean comparison were arranged by least significant differences in the 95% probability.
 

The results revealed that the white bean plants attained their shortest height across all three irrigation levels when zeolite was not applied in the plots. Conversely, when a zeolite level of 10 t.ha-1 was introduced, there was an observed increase of 18.15% in the number of nodes per plant compared to scenarios where no zeolite was utilized. The highest level of zeolite consumption caused an increase of 13.88% in the seed weight compared to the level of no zeolite consumption. The highest seed yield of 4651.5 kg.ha-1was recorded in the 7 day irrigation interval and zeolite consumption of 10 t.ha-1. The lowest amount of electrolyte leakage related to irrigation interval of 10 and 7 days and consumption of 10 t.ha-1 of zeolite was 14.8 and 12.34%, respectively. The consumption of 10 t.ha-1 of zeolite caused a 21% increase in protein compared to the non-use of zeolite in white beans, and with the increase of the irrigation frequency from 7 to 10 days, although the amount of seed protein decreased, it did not have a significant difference with the level of irrigation once every 7 days. And when the irrigation cycle reached once every 13 days, the amount of seed protein decreased significantly by 6.8% compared to the irrigation cycle once every 7 days. It was also found that the addition of 10 tons of zeolite per hectare to the soil caused a 41.5% decrease in the amount of proline in white bean leaves compared to the absence of zeolite. In this research, it was found t.hat the level of 10 t.ha-1 the highest biological yield of 13475 kg.ha-1 recorded and it increased by 29.2% compared to the no zeolite consumption. By reducing the irrigation interval to 10 and 7 days, with the increase of zeolite consumption, the harvest index increased, and in the meantime, the highest index related to the irrigation cycle of 7 days and zeolite consumption of 10 tons was 35.5%.
 

Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that water stress resulted in a reduction in the growth characteristics and overall performance of white bean plants. The lowest values ​​of parameters calculated in this research were observed at the level of no zeolite consumption and irrigation cycle of 13 days, and their highest values ​​were observed at the level of zeolite of 10 t.ha-1 and irrigation cycle of 7 days, which shows that Zeolite, help more water absorption and water return when the plant needs water, and increase the growth of different plant tissues and production of more products. Overall, it can be inferred that applying zeolite at a rate of 10 t.ha-1, particularly in conjunction with a 7-day irrigation cycle, can optimize the yield and growth characteristics of white beans, specifically the Pak cultivar. However, we recommend further investigation into higher levels of zeolite application across various soil textures to enhance our understanding and refine cultivation practices.

Chickpea is an important source of energy and protein of the Iranian people’s diet. Iran is one of the main centers of genetic diversity of this crop. The cultivation of chickpea nowadays is practiced using irrigation or supplemented irrigation in many parts of Iran, as more challenging by climate change, precipitation decline, and salinization of underground water resources. On the other side, there is no enough fresh water to meet the full water requirement of chickpea. Although chickpea consider as a salt sensitive crop but there are some reports that show some variable reaction to salinity amongst different chickpea genotypes. A collection of cold and drought stress tolerant chickpea genotypes are maintained in Mashhad Chickpea Collection (MCC) in the Plant Science Research Center of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Therefore, testing the tolerance of different genotypes and landraces of this crop to salinity stress is of important, and this experiment is arranged to test salinity tolerance of chickpea genotypes in this collection.
 

In order to identify and assess of chickpea genotypes salinity tolerant, seeds of 206 Mashhad Chickpea Collection genotypes were kindly prepared by Plant Science Research Center of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM). The experiment was carried out in the research green house of Faculty of Agriculture of FUM at the spring of 2021 which light was normal, and temperature and humidity were controlled. A randomized complete block design was used with three replications and each treatment consist of 10 plants for each genotype. Seeds were sown in the shallow trays in the lab at 25 degrees centigrade and emerged seedling were transplanted in the sand culture medium. Saline water prepared by adding NaCl to tap water till its EC reached to 12 dS.m-1. Salinity imposed after a week of transplanting through the Hoagland nutrient solution and continued for four weeks. Nutrient solution was renewed each week and 12 dS.m-1 NaCl dissolved in that solution. Measured traits included the height difference at the beginning of the imposing of salt stress and for weeks later, number of branch per plant, survival percentage, and biomass accumulation. Sodium and potassium content of shoots. Data were analyzed using Minitab for windows 17 and standard error and cluster analysis arranged using JMP4 software.
 

 The results showed that 31 genotypes have a survival rate of 76-100% which 10 genotypes showed survival rate of 100%. Plant height, biomass, and number of lateral branches per plant decreased as survival rate decreased. Significant increase in shoot Na+ concentration was only found in survival range of 0-25% while the shoot sodium content was the lowest in in group of 57-100% survival compared to the other three groups. Biomass accumulation also reduced more rapidly in low survival group (0-25%) compare with 76-100% survival group by 66%. The correlation analysis showed that survival rate, plant height and number of lateral branches per plant, biomass, plant height difference and shoot K+ concentration showed significantly positive correlation. Based on factor analysis, three factors were selected that in total 79% of the total variation was explained. The first and second factors were explained high percent of variation that include survival rate and plant height and number of lateral branches per plant, biomass, plant height difference and Na+ concentration. Genotypes MCC1782, MCC197 ,MCC1703 ,MCC1568, MCC1573, MCC1737, MCC1209, MCC1516, MCC1493, MCC1832, MCC1957, MCC1721, MCC2016, MCC1704, MCC1641, MCC1815, MCC1775, MCC178, MCC1754, MCC1627, MCC1716, MCC1918, MCC1827 ,were selected as the superior genotype under salinity stress of 12 dS.m-1  for four weeks. According to the result of cluster analysis, the genotypes were classified in four clusters. The genotypes of the third and fourth clusters had a high average salinity tolerance compared to other clusters with the investigated traits.
 

While chickpea is not traditionally considered a salt-tolerant crop, the observed variations among genotypes suggest that further efforts are required to screen and identify salt-tolerant genotypes and landraces for potential inclusion in breeding programs. It's important to note that the current study was conducted in a controlled environment, with only a few weeks of exposure to salinity treatment. Consequently, we propose a more extensive experiment that includes those genotypes exhibiting superior performance in terms of survival rate, biomass accumulation, low shoot sodium content, and high potassium content.

Nowadays, the cultivation of plants adapted to adverse conditions, such as drought and salinity, in the country has been considered. Meanwhile, Kochia scoparia, one of the forgotten plants, due to its classification in the group of halophytes, has specific characteristics suitable for cultivation in low-water and saline areas (Salehi, Kafi, & Kiani, 2012). This plant is known as an important annual forage crop, and its grains also have high nutritional value and oil, which can be considered for future industrial applications (Salehi et al., 2012). Studies on the salinity tolerance of the Kochia plant have shown that it is suitable for cultivation in saline areas, and in terms of quantity and quality, can compete with conventional forage plants. The use of natural organic materials, such as humic acid, has received more attention. These materials, as part of soil organic matter, are influenced by physical, chemical, and microbiological changes in biological molecules (Sabzevari & Khazaei, 2009; Dong, Córdova-Kreylos, Yang, Yuan, & Scow, 2009). Additionally, nitrogen is the most important element needed for plant growth and development. It is also a key component in many biological compounds, including proteins, nucleic acids, some hormones, and chlorophyll. Nitrogen plays an essential role in photosynthetic processes and the final function of plants (Kaur, Gupta, & Kaur, 2002; Taiz, Zeiger, Møller, & Murphy, 2015). As a result of this research, a combination of nitrogen and humic acid can be used as nutritional resources in salt stress conditions.

This experiment was conducted in the form of split plots based on the randomized complete block design with three replications in the Saline Research Farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in the 2015 growth season. The main plot included drought stress with a four-week interruption of irrigation at three levels of control (irrigation until the end of the growing season), after establishment (50 days after planting), the beginning of flowering (71 days after planting) and late flowering (82 days after planting) The subplot was included nitrogen application at three levels of zero, 100 and 200 kg.ha-1 from urea fertilizer source. The optimum level of humic acid (2 per thousand) was done as seed at the time of planting for all treatments.

The results showed that the drought stress during vegetative and reproductive growth stages had a negative effect on the Kochia plant. However, its effect in the early stages of vegetative growth (after establishment) was greater than the stress at the end of the season (late flowering). Drought stress has a negative effect on Kochia grain yield by reducing the concentration of chlorophyll a, altering the chlorophyll a to b ratio, decreasing carotenoid concentration, and affecting relative leaf water content. However, seed treatments of humic acid and its combination with 100 kg.ha-1 nitrogen level by increasing the concentration of total phenol, soluble carbohydrate concentration, and DPPH free radical scavenging capacity improved photosynthetic pigments and finally kochia grain yield. In general, the most suitable treatment for use in drought stress and saline water source conditions was the combined method of sowing humic acid seeds with 100 kg.ha-1 nitrogen fertilizer.

In general, the occurrence of drought stress in vegetative and reproductive growth stages had a negative effect on the kochia plant. However, its effect in the early stages of vegetative growth (after establishment) was greater than the stress at the end of the season (late flowering). The most suitable treatment was using the combined method of seed of humic acid with 100 kg.ha-1 nitrogen fertilizer.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the main staple food in many parts of the world including Iran. This crop is one of the most cold stress tolerant crops amongst domesticated plants. Still, Severe freezing in winter and early spring may influence the growth and survival of wheat plants and decrease its growth and seed yield. The absolute minimum temperature in North Khorasan reach to -20°C in many years and if a cold tolerant cultivar is not choose or if wheat field in not hardened properly then the freezing stress might be injurious. Therefore each new cultivar that introduced to the region should firstly test to chilling and freezing stress. This experiment was carried out to explore freezing tolerance of two wheat cultivars (Mihan and Pishtaz) under controlled and field conditions with spraying paclobutrazol (PBZ) and non-spray.

 Seeds of two wheat cultivar Mihan and Pishtaz were sown in plastic pots in 20th of September in Bojnord and kept them in open space until third leaf stage in order to grow in the same climatic conditions as they will grow in the future. All plants could receive the enough temperature for winter hardening then they transfer to Mashhad to apply freezing stress in controllable freezer. After applying freezing stress all pots transferred into research greenhouse at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad with light density of 500±50 μmol m-2 s-1 and light/dark cycle of 14/10.   Sampling and measurement were arranged after four weeks that plants grown in the greenhouse.  Measured parameters included electrolyte leakage, plant height, green leaf area, plant survival rate and number of tiller and leaves per plant. Field experiment was arranged in the Kohnekand Agricultural research center in Bojnord. Both experiments conducted as a split-split plots based on a completely randomized design with three replications. The main plots in green house were six freezing temperatures (zero,-4, -8, -12, -16, and -20°C), the sub-plots were three paclobutrazol (PBZ) concentrations (foliar application of zero as control, 30 and 60 mg L-1) and the sub-sub-plots were wheat cultivars (‘Mihan’ and ‘Pishtaz’) with three replication. In the field experiment main plots were three sowing dates (16th Oct., 13th Nov. and 5th Dec.), and the sub-plots and sub-sub-plots were the same as controlled experiment. Data were statistically analyzed using the SAS software (SAS version 9.2). The LSD test (p=0.05) was used to determine which treatment is statistically different from the others.

The results showed that, Mihan cultivar produced more leaves but lower tiller per plant compare to pishtaz, Up to -16°C but at and -20°C the tiller number was also not significant. But reduced to -20°C, the electrolyte leakage of membrane increased significantly by 71.5%. The electrolyte leakage in Mihan cultivar was significantly lower than that of Pishtaz cultivar when freezing temperature was decreased lower than -16°C.  PBZ also caused shorter plants but less leaf lost observed due to freezing stress in both cultivars. Delay in sowing date from 16th Oct. to 13th Nov. and to 5th of Dec. caused 19% and 31% seed yield reduction in two wheat cultivars, respectively. While the average seed yield of Mihan was 17% higher than pishtaz cultivar. Biological yield also followed the same trend of grain yield. PBZ application did not show any significant effect on seed yield, this result might be due to ABA production after PBZ spraying, which can negatively affect yield component formation.  Based on our results temperatures below -12°C is much more injurious that higher temperatures, and the advantage of freezing tolerance wheat cultivars appears in lower temperatures.

Based on our results, Mihan cultivar has higher freezing tolerance capacity and in temperature below -12°C and PBZ application this cultivar can alleviate negative effects of freezing stress. Therefore, introduction and extension of this cultivar in mountain regions and those areas that the risk of freezing stress is high might reduce the risk of freezing damage in Bojnord area and at the same time produce reliable grain yield.

The effect of salinity stress on the quantity and quality of crop production highlights the importance of managing and reducing the damage caused by this stress factor in agriculture. Increasing soil salinity and decreasing fertility of arable lands is one of the major problems in saline areas. Cultivation of salt-tolerant crops which can increase soil fertility could be effective in the sustainable production of these lands. Studying photosynthesis and its related factors could provide appropriate physiological views in understanding plant behavior against salinity stress. The present study was conducted to assess the salinity tolerance of chickpea genotypes for cultivation in saline areas.

To evaluate the effects of salinity stress on photosynthetic criteria and yield of chickpeas, an experiment was conducted in 2018 at the research farm of the faculty of agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. The experiment was arranged as a split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental factors consisted of salinity levels (0.5 and 8 dS.m-1) as the main plot and chickpea genotype (17 kabuli-type genotypes) as the subplot. Seeds were provided from the Mashhad chickpea collection of the Center for Plant Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. Seeds were planted on March 11th and complementary irrigation was done in three growth stages of pre-flowering, flowering, and pod-filling. Sodium chloride was used to prepare saline solutions and the irrigation water rate was measured by water meter. Photosynthetic criteria including photosynthesis rate, evapotranspiration, stomatal conductance, and resistance and concentration of photosynthetic pigments were measured in the 50% flowering stage.

Results indicated that the lowest and highest reduction in the concentration of chlorophyll a was found in MCC65 (6%) and MCC83 (3.3 times increase), respectively. Increasing salinity level increased the concentration of chlorophyll b in MCC65 and MCC139, the ratio of chlorophyll a/b in MCC92, MCC139, and MCC776, carotenoids concentration in MCC77, MCC92, MCC313, and MCC679 and total pigments in MCCMCC77, MCC92, MCC298, and MCC679. Increasing salinity levels led to higher evapotranspiration in 14 genotypes except for MCC65, MCC95, and MCC298 in which 37, 54, and 63% decrease of this parameter was observed. Increasing salinity level increased photosynthesis rate in 7 genotypes of MCC12, MCC65, MCC72, MCC92, MCC95, MCC679 and MCC776 among which MCC95 and MCC679 showed the highest percentage increase (61 and 53%, respectively). The highest increase in sub-stomatal CO2 (51, 49, and 40 ppm) with increasing salinity levels, was found in MCC485, MCC776, and MCC313, respectively. An increase of 28 and 8% in stomatal conductance was found in MCC65 and MCC95. Stomatal resistance was only reduced in MCC77, MCC420, and MCC29. Higher salinity levels also led to 3.4 times, 67, 14, and 13% increase in instantaneous water use efficiency in MCC95, MCC65, MCC92, and MCC298, respectively. Biomass and seed yield declined in all genotypes by salinity. The highest seed yield was observed in MCC65, MCC77, MCC92, and MCC95 with 142, 148, 167, and 166 g.m-2 respectively in saline conditions. There was a negative significant correlation between seed yield and evapotranspiration (r=-0.43**), and stomatal resistance (r=-0.38**), and a significant positive correlation between seed yield and biomass (r=0.61**) and photosynthesis (r=0.24**) and stomatal conductance (0.36**).

In general, the results of this experiment indicated the diversity among chickpea genotypes for salinity tolerance caused by saline irrigation water. Studying some photosynthetic criteria in 17 kabuli-type chickpea genotypes under salinity stress showed high diversity in physiological responses of chickpeas to salinity stress which could be used in the selection and breeding of salt-tolerant cultivars. MCC65, MCC77, MCC92, and MCC95 were superior in most studied criteria in saline conditions and even performed, unlike the declining trend of the other genotypes. It seems that these genotypes could produce reasonable seed yield in salinity levels up to 8dS.m-1.

In order to study competition response among saffron corms, a split plot experiment was conducted on the basis of complete randomized block design with three replications in a field in Ashkezar city of Yazd province for 3 years. The main plots were irrigation with three levels (100%, 75% and 50% of ETc) and the sub plots were fertilization management methods including control (without any fertilizer or manure), applying 10 t ha-1 cow manure, 10 t ha-1 vermicompost both by spreading, 10 t ha-1 or 5 t ha-1vermicompost buried under planting corm rows, 10 l ha-1 Humaster Saffron fertilizer for 1 or 2 times after flowering during irrigation. Results showed that under moderate water stress in comparison with control, total corm number and total corm weight per plant was declined more than 30% and 17% respectively. But average corm weight was enhanced by 12%. Total effective corm weight and total effective corm number were declined more than 50% under strict water stress in comparison with control. During 3 experimental years, total effective corm number, total effective corm weight, total corm number and total corm weight were increased by 189%, 205%, 470% and 263% respectively while average corm weight, effective corm weight ratio and effective corm number ratio were declined by 38%, 17% and 48% respectively. In summary, results showed that increasing in corm weight per plants during experimental years were mostly as a result of increasing in corm numbers. Although, big corms per small corms were decreased year by year as a result of competition among corms. Under moderate stress water, saffron plant grew up each corm weight in comparison with increasing corm number per plant while under strict water stress allocated assimilates among more corms and increases corm numbers per plant.

In temperate climates, cool-season plants are usually grown in autumn. Due to the proper establishment of the plant in autumn, better use of rainfall, and avoidance of late-season heat and drought stresses, autumn planting leads to better plant stability and yield compared to spring planting. In chickpeas, autumn sowing increases plant height and nitrogen fixation. Scientists believe that autumn cultivation of chickpea leads to higher yields due to the longer vegetative growth period and coincides with the reproductive growth period with favorable humidity and temperature conditions. On the other hand, studies have shown that in severe freezing temperatures in cold regions, chickpea has a lower tolerance threshold than autumn cereals. This study aimed to evaluate the freezing tolerance of chickpea genotypes -desi type- in field conditions to select superior genotypes for autumn cultivation.

This study was conducted in the research farm station of the Faculty of Agriculture, the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2018. In this study, 255 desi type genotypes and a Kabuli type genotype (Saral) as control were evaluated in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Seeds were provided from the Mashhad Chickpea Collection (Seed Bank of Research Center for Plant Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad). Planting was done in October with a density of 30 plants per square meter. Irrigation was done in three stages including immediately after planting, 14 days after the first irrigation, and at the flowering stage. To determine survival percentage, the number of plants for each genotype was counted 30 days after emergence and immediately after winter. Genotypes were classified into four groups (0-25, 26-50, 51-75 and 76-100% survival). Plant height, plant length, lowest pod height, number of branches, number of pods per plant, percentage of filled pods, plant dry weight, grain weight per plant, 100-seed weight, biological yield, grain yield, and harvest index were measured at the end of the growing season.

The lowest minimum temperature during the growing season was -12°C. Results showed that among 255 genotypes, 25 genotypes were lost before freezing stress and 20 genotypes were lost by freezing stress. Significant differences were observed among the genotypes in terms of plant height, plant length, lowest pod height, number of branches, number of pods per plant, percentage of filled pods, plant dry weight, seed weight per plant, 100-seed weight, biological yield, grain yield, and harvest index. The survival percentage of 39 genotypes was between 76 to 100%, 75 genotypes between 51 to 75%, 61 genotypes between 26 to 50%, and 55 genotypes less than 25%. Ten genotypes (MCC373, MCC658, MCC755, MCC212, MCC83, MCC864, MCC371, MCC756, MCC749 and MCC885) had a survival percentage higher than 90%. Plant height in 21 genotypes was higher than 50 cm and the lowest pod height in 47 genotypes was more than 15cm. The number of branches per plant increased as the survival range increased. Also, in different survival ranges, grain yield decreased as survival percentage decreased. The average grain yield in the survival range of 100-76% was 257 g.m-2, which was 24%, 2.5, and 8.6 times higher than the survival ranges of 51-75, 26-50, and 0-25%, respectively. No significant difference was found among survival ranges of 100-76, 75-51, and 50-26% according to the harvest index.

The results of cluster analysis of chickpea genotypes desi type under autumn cultivation showed that 230 studied genotypes were divided into four groups. The four groups included 106, 24, 43, and 57 genotypes, respectively. Standardized canonical coefficients of all traits except, the percentage of filled pods, seed weight per plant, 100-seed weight, and harvest index were significant in the first canonical diagnostic equation. These results show that these traits have the greatest impact on the diversity between genotypes. Based on the results of the analysis of the variance of groups, except for the percentage of filled pods and harvest index, a significant difference was observed between the groups in all studied traits. A comparison of the means of the groups showed that the genotypes of the second group had the highest mean survival percentage and then the fourth group was in the next rank. The difference between the means of these two groups with the total mean was 17.7 and 16.4%, respectively. The genotypes of the second group were superior to the genotypes of the other groups in terms of biomass yield and grain yield and produced 1252 and 606 g.m-2 more than the total average, respectively, then the genotypes of the fourth group were superior to the genotypes of the other groups. In general, due to the high yield in the cold-tolerant genotypes, autumn cultivation of desi-type chickpeas seems to be economical.

Due to the importance of chickpeas in human nutrition, this experiment was conducted as split-plot based on complete randomized block design with three replications in 2018 at the research farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Treatments were combination of seed priming, fertilizer levels and chickpea genotypes. Fertilizers levels included: 1-seed priming + free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria(P+BF) 2-Application of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria(BF) 3-Pre-planting application of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria+foliar application of amino acids, potassium and silisium during growth period(BF+F) 4-Seed priming+pre-planting application of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria + foliar application of amino acids, potassium and silicium during growth period (P+BF+F) 5-Control (non- fertilized). Fertilizers were considered as main plots and chickpea genotypes (MCC911, MCC603, MCC291, MCC259 and MCC83) as sub-plots. Results indicated that MCC291 in P+BF+F and MCC83 in BF+F had the highest concentration of Chlorophyll a. The highest plant height was found in MCC259 and MCC911 in BF and MCC83 in P+BF+F. MC259 and MCC911 in F showed the highest height of the first pod. The highest number of pods per plant and 100-seed weight were recorded in MCC83 in P+BF+F. The highest seed yield (233, 212 and 206 g.m-2) was found in MCC259 in P+BF and P+BF+F and MCC911 in BF+F, respectively. Therefore, according to the obtained yields it could be concluded that the biological fertilizers combination treatments improved plant growth and consequently chickpea yield in Mashhad area.

This study was conducted as split-plot based on Complete Randomized Block Design with three replications in 2019 at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Salinity as the main plot (eight, 12 and 16dS m-1) and 13 chickpea genotypes were allocated to sub-plots. Salinity levels of eight and 12dS m-1, two genotypes of MCC606 and MCC643 had the highest survival percentage and at salinity level of 16dS m-1, only three genotypes of MCC539, MCC606 and MCC658 survived. Relative water content (RWC), Membrane Stability Index (MSI) and concentration of chlorophyll-a, were decreased in all genotypes as salinity level increased. Among the genotypes, MCC606 had the highest values of RWC, MSI and carotenoids at salinity levels of 12 and 16dS m-1. Proline content was increased in all genotypes as salinity level increased from eight to 12dS m-1. Results of the cluster analysis indicated the superiority of MCC539, MCC658 and MCC606 compared to total mean in all parameters. Principal component analysis showed that the first component explained 64.49% of changes in DPPH, carotenoids, MSI and biomass in three genotypes of MCC539, MCC658 and MCC606. Since this experiment was conducted in controlled conditions, field assessment of freezing tolerance of the superior genotypes is recommended to confirm the results of the present study.

Determination of the most suitable time for crop planting is one of the basic requirements to gain the highest yield and income. Planting date is one of the most important factors in growth, development and yield production in potato planting effects of temperature fluctuations on growth and tuber abnormality and inappropriate quality comes from the special features of the that region being uncontrolled by farmers.

This study was conducted in 2015-2016 in research station of Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad as split-plot based on Complete Randomized Block Design with three replications. Treatments were combination of four planting dates (March 5th, March 19th, April 3th and May 4th) as main plot and three potato cultivars (Agria, Fontane and Sante) as sub-plots. Harvesting was done 90 days after 50% of emergence.

Number of stem per plant as one of the effective potato yield components was not affected by planting date. Results indicated that as planting date was delayed from March 5th to May 4th, leaf area index was increased by 64 and 85% in two cultivars of Agria and Fontane while a decreasing trend of this parameter was observed in Sante. Number of tubers per plant was decreased by delaying planting date from March 5th to May 4th except in Fontane in which number of tubers per plant was increased in April 3th and was reduced thereafter. The highest and lowest tuber yield with a difference of 12391kg.ha-1was found in April 3th and March 19th, respectively and was observed in Fontane cultivar. Tuber dry matter percentage of Agria was increased as planting date delayed while it was increased till April 3th and reduced in Fontane. The highest (22.13) and lowest (18.50) tuber dry matter percentage of Sante was found in March 5th and 19th, respectively. An increasing trend of potato tuber specific weight was observed with delaying planting date in a way that the highest and lowest mean of this parameter was found in March 19th and May 4th, respectively. No significant difference was observed between Agria and Fontane in different planting dates according to reduced sugars content of tubers. Total antioxidant and starch of potato tubers was increased in all three cultivars as planting date was delayed and reduction sugar decreased by delayed in planting date.

The number of tubers per plant as well as the number of tuber <30mm per plant decreased with the delay in planting dates, which was affected by the photoperiods of the growing season. Although the tuber yield decreased with delay in planting dates, but the percentage of marketable tubers was higher in late planting dates than in early planting. Late planting dates were better than early plantings. Sante showed a better performance in early planting dates compared to the two other cultivars, producing more marketable tubers with higher quality and dry matter percentage. Generally, it could be concluded that in Mashhad weather conditions, Sante is more appropriate for early planting compared to Agria and Fontane but its superiority is lost when planting date is delayed.

In order to identify different landraces of onion seeds in terms of germination characteristics, an experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with four replications in the Biology Laboratory of the Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2020. The experimental treatments were 29 native landraces of onion seeds from different regions of Iran and two improved cultivars as control. The results showed a significant difference for all measured indices amongst landraces. Also, the clustering results of the landraces, based on the apparent characteristics, showed that among the 4 clusters, the third cluster, which includes 9 landraces (Harsin, Kavar, Azarshahr, Bonab, Yasuj, Qorveh, Kashan white, Neishabour white and Qoli Qeseh) has better appearance characteristics in terms of 1000-grain weight (average 4.54 g), grain length (average 3.08 mm) and grain diameter (1.9 mm). Also, it was shown based on germination characteristics that among the six indivisual clusters, the fourth cluster with 7 landraces including Yasuj, Kashan white, Dorcheh Yellow, Turkey, Tarom, Neishabour white and Qorveh has better germination characteristics. In general, it can be concluded that based on the appearance and germination characteristics, Yasuj, Kashan white and Neishabour white landraces showed a better seed quality.

Saffron is a vulnerable crop to weed competition because of its short canopy and narrow leaves. So weeds are the major problem in saffron production. Weeds are mainly controlled by hand or mechanically in saffron fields, these traditional methods are effective and environmental friendly but they are expensive and time consuming.These traditional methods are effective and environmental friendly, however they are expensive and time consuming. The number of suitable herbicide for weed control in saffron fields are limited. The importance of herbicide as alternatives method for weed control was recognized long ago. Herbicide treated mulch (HTM) is the combination of physical (mulch) and chemical (herbicide) weed control methods. This experiment was conducted to investigate the possibility of using mulch and herbicide treated mulch (HTM) to increase the efficiency of herbicides in saffron weeds management. The objectives of this study were to compare the effect of herbicides alone and in combination with mulch on weed control and also determine the influence of herbicide placement (on soil surface, under mulch or herbicide-treated mulch) on weed control and phytotoxicity of saffron.

 Field experiments were conducted during the growing seasons of 2016 and 2017 in Khorasan Razavi, Iran. Two field of 4-year-old saffron that had not received herbicide applications for at least two years in two different climates were chosen. The treatments consist of trifluralin (EC48%) at 1200 g i.a.ha-1, pendimethalin (EC33%) at 1485 g i.a.ha-1 and metribuzin (WP70%) at 525 g i.a.ha-1 were applied in three method 1) Directly to soil: herbicides were applied before crust crushing directly in soil. 2) Under the mulch: herbicides were sprayed with an electric knapsack sprayer after crust crushing directly in soil, then the soil surface was covered with a layer of wood chips mulch with a depth of 3 cm. 3) Herbicide treated mulch: mulch of wood chips were pretreated with herbicides by placing the mulch on a plastic sheet at the depth of 3 cm above and herbicide was sprayed on top of the mulch and evenly mixed and allowed to dry for 48 hours before applying them to field. The non-treated control with and without mulch and also treatment of hand weeding was included for comparison.

 There was no severe phytotoxicity to saffron after treatments application according to EWRC, slight injuries observed in all plots ranging from 1 (No damage) to 2 (Very little damage including slightly yellowing). Metribuzin herbicide induced more phytotoxicity symptoms on saffron compared to two other herbicides, but it was better to weeds control and increasing saffron yield. Treatment of metribuzin mixed with mulch in both fields after hand weeding were the best treatment to decreasing of weeds dry weight and improvement of yield components of saffron. Treatment of metribuzin mixed with mulch compared with control caused 85% and 87% reduction of weed dry weight in both fields, also this treatment compared with control increased dry weight stigma to 2.5 times and 2 times. It seems that after metribuzin, pendimethalin herbicide has better efficiency for use in saffron fields. Although, treatment of mulch without herbicide, is not prevented weed growth, but had more effective on increasing of saffron yield compared to weedy check, especially in field 1(region of Kashmar). Therefore, the use of mulch in warm and dry areas has better effect on saffron yield improvement. Considering that the cultivation of saffron is carried in semi-arid regions of Iran such as Khorasan, the correct application of plant residues in semi-arid regions can have a direct effect on the amount of organic matter in the soil, which leads to an increase in flower yield. Generally the pre-mixed mulch with herbicide, in addition to improving the herbicide efficiency, increased saffron yield. This results indicate that the proper combination of herbicides with mulch layer as thin as 3 cm can provide acceptable weed control. According to the result, one suggested way to weed management in saffron could be the combination of herbicide (Metribuzin) with mulch.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is an annual plant belong to Fabaceae and is one of the traditional medicinal plants worldwide. It can provide seed and protein suitable for human's nutrition as well as animals. Water scarcity is a key threat in twenty-first century. On average, 40% of the world land surface are drylands, while this surface area is 90% in Iran. Supplying water requirement of Fenugreek through irrigation is an important factor affecting its growth and yield.

The experiment was conducted as split plots based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Farm, Faculty of Agriculture of shahed university, Iran, in 2014 and 2016. The main-plot was three levels of drought stress, included severe drought stress (20% field capacity), moderate drought stress (40% field capacity), mild drought stress (60% field capacity) and non-drought stress (80% field capacity) as control. Sub plots were nine Fenugreek ecotypes including Neyshabur, Shirvan, Mashhad, Tabriz, Roudsar, Isfahan, Hamadan, Ardestan and Shiraz. At maturity, and the plants were harvested from the soil surface and the plant height and number of lateral branches, number of pod per plant, number of seed per pod, 1000 seed weight, seed yield and aboveground biological yield were measured in the lab. Statistical analysis carried out using SPSS version 16 software. Significant difference was set at p ≤ 0.05 by using Duncan’s multiple range test.

Results of stepwise regression showed that the traits including biomass, harvest index, branch length and number of pods per plant explained 96.7% of grain yield variation, respectively. Factor analysis for morphologic, yield and component yield traits showed the first three independent factors explained 93.48% of total variance in all genotypes. Days to maturity with 36.47% of total variance had the highest amount in the first factor, while, number of seeds per plant and seed yield with 29.74% and 27.07% of total variance were ranked as second and third factors, respectively. Cluster analysis by Ward’s minimum variance, clustered ecotypes into three groups including 1- Isfahan, Ardestan, Hamedan and Shiraz 2- Mashhad and Tabriz 3- Shirvan, Rudsar and Neyshabur. The results showed that, the plant height, Internode length, number of pod and seed per plant, 1000 seed weight, biological and seed yield and harvest index significantly affected by drought stress and ecotypes. The highest plant height, number of pods, 1000 seed weight, biomass, seed yield and harvest index was recorded in Shirvan ecotype while, the longest day to maturity and height of first pod were observed in Neyshabur ecotype at 80% FC. The highest plant height, the first formed pod, 1000 seed weight, seed yield and harvest index in Shirvan ecotype were observed in the 40% FC.ConclusionDrought stress reduced all studied traits in all Fenugreek ecotypes in this experiment. For seed yield, the performance of shirvan ecotype was the best compare to other ectypes in control and mild and moderate stress condition. The highest distance of the first pod from the soil surface in the control condition was observed in the Neyshabur ecotype but in the moderate stress condition in Shirvan ecotype, this trait is important for the mechanized cultivation. Based on the results, there is a reliable variation amongst different Iranian Fenugreek ecotypes and they could use for breeding programs against drought stress. It also seems that Shirvan ecotype of Fenugreek can be considered for stable seed and biomass production under moderate drought stress and normal conditions.

It has been proven that microorganisms such as mycorrhiza and rhizobium can improve the nutrients absorption in crops such as chickpea. Rhizobiums are effective to provide nitrogen by biological form in crops and mycorrhizal fungi are involved to supply biological phosphorus to the plants. Among them, the endo myccorihza (or Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) that abbreviated VAM, in creation of symbiosis with the roots of crops such as legumes have been more successful. Of course, the mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobium bacteria before create symbiosis with host plant, directly affect in the overlay in rhizosphere environment of host plant. Creating colonies in the roots by mycorrhizal fungi leads to conducive for forming nodulation of rhizobium. Studies have shown that the VAMs (which are newly named AMF (Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi)) are generally belongs to Zigomaycota groups and ecto-myccorihza are mainly to Basidiomaycota. But recently a new species of Basidiomaycota has been identified with name of Piriformospora indica that acts as AMF and is an entophyte fungus (or pseudo endo mycorrihza). It seems that this symbiotic relationship between plants, mycorrhizal and rhizobium can be either normal or adverse environmental conditions, is effective in promoting the product of crop. In Iran, among pluses, chickpea has been allocated the most area under cultivation. Meanwhile, the average yield of irrigated and dryland chickpea is about 1000 and 500 kg ha-1, respectively and Iran is located the lowest ranking among the countries producing this product. Thus, the triplet symbiosis of chickpea, mycorrhiza and rhizobium and also chickpea genotypes response to this symbiosis were examined in this research. 

This study was conducted to investigate the inoculation of Kabuli seeds of chickpea genotypes with arbuscular mycorrhiza and pseudo endo mycorhiza, in split plot by arrangement of two factors with a randomized complete block design and three replications in Research Field, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2014. Main plots were consisted of three levels of mycorhiza (arbuscular mycorhiza of Glomus mosseae, pseudo endo mycorhiza of Piriformospora indica and non-used mycorhiza) and sub plots were consisted of nine genotypes of chickpea: MCC80, MCC358, MCC361, MCC392, MCC427, MCC537, MCC693, MCC696 and MCC950. These genotypes had good yield potentials and selection and presented in the studies on germplasm from the Institute of Plant Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad seed bank. Before the sowing, all seeds of genotypes were infected to the symbiotic rhizobium bacteria of chickpea. During the growing season, traits of chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, SPAD readings and protein of plant tissues were measured and by measuring dry matter and leaf area, their process was investigated under different treatments. Also, at the end of the growing season, seed yield of genotypes was measured. 

The results indicated that G. mosseae significantly increased seed yield and dry matter of chickpea since mid-season upward compared to other treatments. Arbuscular mycorrhiza significantly increased chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, carotenoids and SPAD readings. Also the most protein of plant tissues belonged to the factor of arbuscular mycorrhiza in two genotypes of MCC537 and MCC427. The combined application of rhizobium and mycorrhiza increased leaf area index. Evaluation of leaf area index process at the end of the growing season showed an increase in the lower range of leaf area index curve in rhizobium and mycorrhiza treatments, which was not significant in the fifth sampling and was significant in the sixth sampling. Among study genotypes, MCC537 showed the highest seed yield and higher dry matter than other genotypes during the growing season at harvest time. The most content of carotenoids and SPAD readings were in genotypes of MCC537, MCC427 and MCC392. 

It seems that application of pseudo endo mycorrhiza had not significant effect on the absorption of seed yield in chickpea. But application of G. mosseae along with rhizobium can improve the physiological traits and seed yield of chickpea. Also, in a general conclusion, among the studied genotypes, MCC 537 and MCC 427 were better than the others.

Potato ranks the first with respect to the amount of energy production per unit area. It is cultivated in about 19.5 million hectares throughout the world and its annual production is about 375 million tons. Iran ranks the third in Asia and 12th in the world in potato production and produces around 4.5 million tons of potato annually. Potato is a sensitive crop to water deficiency and its water requirement is higher compared to many other crops. Due to ever decreasing of water available for agriculture sector and reduced precipitations in recent years deficit irrigation, which results to more efficient use of available water, can be considered as a clever water management strategy in potato production. In this study the effect of deficit irrigation on water use efficiency (WUE) and percent tuber dry matter of 10 potato cultivars were investigated to identify the best performed cultivar (s) under this condition.

A two years study was conducted in a split plot experiment based on complete block design with three replications in Ardabil in 2013 and 2014. The main plot was three levels of irrigation (complete irrigation and irrigation with 80% and 60% of required water) and the subplot consisted of 10 potato cultivars including: Khavaran, Savalan, Luca, Satina, Santae, Marfona, Ceasar, Agria, Aula and Draga. Each plot consisted of 6 rows of 4.5 m long (27 m2). Required water conveyed to the plots through tape line equipped with a measurer gauge. At harvest 7.5 m2 of each plot (excluding the borders) was hand harvested and transferred to the laboratory, where marketable tubers (tubers with at least 35 mm or more in size) were separated and weighted and data were transformed to ton.ha-1. To determine percent dry matter of tubers, a 300 g tuber sample was taken from each plot, chopped to one cm pieces and oven dried at 750C for 48 hours until a constant weight was obtained and then the dry matter was measured.

The analysis of variance result of WUE revealed that there were significant differences between years, irrigation treatments and cultivars. Also, the interactions of irrigation × year and irrigation × cultivar were significant. Water use efficiency were higher in both mild and severe water deficit conditions compared to complete irrigation and there were significant differences among potato cultivars in all three irrigation regimes. Under severe water deficit condition the highest and the lowest WUE were found in cultivars Satina and Marfona respectively (5.88 and 2.24 kg.m-3) and the lowest and the highest percent reduction of WUE were also observed in cultivars Satrina (+50%) and Marfona (-29%), respectively. The effect of water treatment on percent tuber dry matter was not significant. However, significant differences were observed among the potato cultivars in this regard. The highest and the lowest mean percent tuber dry matter were observed in cultivars Savalan (23.6%) and Draga (18%), respectively.

Based on the results obtained in this study it can be concluded that deficit irrigation results in increased WUE especially in cultivar Satina, but has no effect on percent tuber dry matter. Therefore, in regions with severe water limitation cultivar Satina, that has the highest WUE, can be recommended. In regions where enough water is available and higher dry matter is demanded specially by processing industries cultivar Savalan is recommended based on its higher dry matter.

The selection of elite parents and hybrids could be used for the genetic improvement of quantitative and qualitative traits in breeding programs of vegetables. In order to genetic evaluation of quantitative and qualitative traits of tomato lines, half-diallel crosses were performed among eight lines C.JPS3, S.2274, H.1370, K.2274, S.L, C20, Primoga and A13012. The obtained hybrids along with parents were planted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Traits including fruit shape index, no. of locules, fruit firmness index, brix, titrable acidity, pH of fruit juice, no. of inflorescence per plant, no. of flowers per inflorescence, no. of fruits per plant, average fruit weight and yield were measured. Parent K.2274 had the highest values of general combining ability (GCA) for the yield, number of fruits per plant and fruit firmness. The highest specific combining ability (SCA) was observed in C20xC.JPS3 and A13012xK.2274 cross for the average fruit weight, respectively. Among parents and hybrids, parent H.1370 and Primoga × H.1370 hybrid had the highest yield. The highest relative heterosis percentage for no. of fruits per plant, average fruit weight and yield were observed in A13012 × Primoga, C20 × C.JPS3, and Primoga × H.1370 crosses, respectively. Role of over-dominance and dominance effects were more than the additive effect in controlling of yield, no. of fruit per plant, titrable acidity, and brix. However, the additive effect was effective in the control of average fruit weight.

Low yield and instability, is one of the most important issues in chickpea cultivation. The adverse environmental conditions have affected the crop yield; in this regard, one of the most important factors is salinity stress that reduces crop yield. Meanwhile, microorganisms have a high ability to mitigation the adverse effects of salinity. In addition, the coexistence of beneficial bacteria and fungi creates a potential for a decrease of salinity stress impacts on plants. Mycorrhizal fungi belonging to the branch Glomeromycota, one of the oldest living organisms introduced to coexist with plants on land and in salinity. These fungi are widely found in saline soils. Research has shown that mycorrhizal arbuscular fungi increase salinity tolerance and prevent yield loss. Studies have shown that the coexistence of mycorrhizal arbuscular fungi with crop roots increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes and this expansion of activity to the plant helps to reduce the effects of salinity stress. With regard to the beneficial effects of mycorrhizal fungi on reducing salinity effects in crops, this study aimed to evaluate salt tolerance in chickpea using native mycorrhizal fungi to improve soil properties and its sustainable production under saline conditions.

This study was performed in 2016 as factorial based on completely randomized block design with three replications in the research glasshouse of the College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Salinity stress treatments included four levels (tap water [control], 6, 6 and 9 dS.m-1 sodium chloride) and mycorrhiza species at three levels (native mass, Piriformospora indica as endophyte, and Gigospera margareta). Four weeks after applying salt stress, maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry (F'v/F'm) II, stomatal conductance, SPAD index, relative water content (RWC) of leaves, and membrane stability index in the youngest fully expanded leaf were measured. In addition, morphological traits, including plant height, lowest branch height, number of branch number, and number of leaves per plant were measured. At the end of the experiment, the shoot fresh and dry weight, length, volume and dry weight of root were measured, finally root colonization was assessed.

The maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry (F'v/F'm) affected by different levels of salinity and mycorrhiza application. The highest and lowest maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry (F'v/F'm) levels were related to 9 dS.m-1 salinity treatment with mycorrhiza Piriformospora indica and control treatment with Gigospera margareta species, the difference between which was 4.5 times. In addition, the highest amount of gas exchange was observed in the Piriformospora indica species. The highest SPAD index was related to treatment with Piriformospora indica fungi in non-stress conditions and the highest salinity stress level. Moreover, application of Piriformospora indica fungal species increased RWC by 4.54% and 9.20%, compared to the use of mycorrhiza native mass and Gigospera margareta species, respectively. Application of Piriformospora indica showed superiority in membrane stability index relative to Gigaspora margareta in all treatments of salinity stress, with the exception of 9 dS.m-1 treatment. However, no significant difference was observed between mycorrhiza treatments in 9 dS.m-1 of salinity stress. Root inoculation with Piriformospora indica increased plant height by 12.7%, compared to mycorrhiza native mass. At all levels of salinity stress, Piriformospora indica increased shoot fresh weight, compared to native mass and Gigospera margareta treatments. Furthermore, the least and highest decrease in root length was observed in Piriformospora indica and Gigospera margareta treatments, respectively. Among mycorrhiza fungi treatments, Piriformospora indica produced the highest root volume, compared to native mass and Gigospera margareta treatments with a difference of 10.9% and 36.4% between them. In addition, in non saline treatment with Piriformospora indica had the highest percentage of root colonization (54.66).

According to the results of the study, most traits evaluated in the study were affected by increased intensity of salinity stress. In addition, increased salinity had a negative impact on root development due to increased soil osmotic potential and toxicity, which ultimately reduced plant growth. Moreover, mycorrhiza inoculation had a significant, positive effect on the photosynthetic system of photosystem II, shoot and root dry weight, ratio of shoot to root, root length and percentage of colonization, root volume, root fresh weight, RWC and membrane stability index. Inoculation of commercial species of mycorrhiza under salt stress increased plant salinity tolerance.

Identify the freezing tolerant cultivars is a suitable approach for the success of lentil sowing in autumn. In this respect, an augmented experience was carried out to evaluate freezing tolerance of 259 lentil accessions during the 2016-2017 growing seasons in Mashhad. During the growing season, the phenologic growth stages of the plants and the survival percentage affected by winter hardiness were recorded, and at the end of the growing season, morphological traits, seed yield and components were determined. The lowest recorded temperature during the growing season was -13ºC. Survival percentage varied between 0 and 100% and the highest survival percentage (100%) and maximum plant height (53cm) were found in MLC13 MLC409, respectively. Six accessions (MLC424، MLC286, MLC409, MLC303، MLC334 and MLC407) were identified as freezing tolerant. Among freezing tolerant accessions, MLC424, MLC286, MLC409, MLC303, MLC334 and MLC407 had the highest seed yield (154, 192, 220, 144, 225 and 264 g.m،2), respectively. There was a high correlation between survival percentage and seed yield and components. Based on the results, more precise assessment of physiological processes involved in freezing tolerance of lentil accessions in the controlled condition and accessing to winter hardness genotyped is necessary.

The first step in cultivating wild medicinal plants is to observe how they respond to agronomical treatments in controlled environments. In 2017, this experiment was carried out at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad's Research Institute of Plant Sciences to investigate the morphological and physiological changes of the medicinal plant Barazamble (Proveskia abrotanoides). With three replications, a factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design in 6, 12, 18, and 24 g/kg of nitrogen (N1 to N4) and 4, 6, 8, and 10 g/kg of phosphorus (P1 to P4) was used. P4 (17.77 µmol.m-2s-1, 7.44 and 1.70 mmol.m-2s-1, respectively) and N4 (16.88 µmol.m-2s-1, 8.62 and 1.74 mmol.m-2s-1, respectively) had the highest photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance. In terms of photosynthesis and transpiration rate, there was no significant difference between N3 and N4. The highest chlorophyll a content (0.464 mg. g-1fw) was found in the N3P3 treatment, while the highest chlorophyll b content (0.464 mg. g-1fw) was found in the N3 treatment. The P4 and N3 treatments had the highest root dry weight, while the N3 and P3 treatments had the highest shoot dry weight, biomass accumulation, root/shoot ratio, total biomass, and root volume. More research is needed before recommending fertilizers, but the third level of nitrogen (N3) and phosphorus (P3) application had the greatest effect on the measured traits of Proveskia abrotanoides.

The excessive use of chemical fertilizers devastates soil fertility and causes different types of environmental pollution. Therefore, using adequate eco-friendly fertilizers in agriculture enhances productivity but has no adverse effect on nature. Recently, there has been reported that beneficial soil microbes produce some volatile organic compounds, which are beneficial to plants. The amendment of these microbes with locally available organic materials and nanoparticles is currently used to formulate biofertilizers for increasing plant productivity. These bacteria are naturally present in soils, but their population decreases for a long time because of long-term environmental stress, improper use of chemical agents, and the absence of a suitable host plant. Adding these bacteria to the soil, before or during the growing season, increases the growth and production of agricultural products. Since available water is the main growth limiting factor in chickpea cultivation, it is useful to improve nutrition, especially using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, for accelerating the growth and development of plants at the end of the season.
In order to evaluate the effect of bio-nutrition and seed priming on growth and yield of chickpea genotypes (MCC463, MCC741, ILC8617, ILC72, FLIP02-51C) an experiment was carried in split plots based on Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications in 2019. Experimental factors included nutritional treatments as the main plots and chickpea genotypes as the subplots. Nutritional treatments were 1- seed priming with the use of free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria (P + BF), 2- free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria before sowing (BF), 3- seed priming with the application of free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria with foliar application of amino acid, potassium and silicon during growth stages (P + BF + F), 4- application of free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria before planting with foliar application of amino acid, potassium and silicon during growth stages (BF + F), and 5- control (without biological and chemical fertilizers). Free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and potassium solubilizing bacteria were sprayed five liters per hectare on the soil surface before planting with 107 CFU per ml and mixed with soil. Foliar application with amino acid (1:1000) was done in two stages (before flowering and 50% flowering stage), and foliar application with potassium (1:1000) and silicon (1.5:1000) was carried out in the 50% flowering stage.
Results showed that the highest concentration of chlorophyll a was obtained for BF and MCC463 with an increase of 3.1 times greater than control. The highest concentration of chlorophyll b was obtained for BF + F and FLIP02-51. The highest green area index was recorded for MCC741 in P + BF. The highest number of pods per plant in MCC463 and FLIP02-51 was observed in BF + F, with 88 and 30% more than the control, respectively. The highest biomass produced was obtained for ILC8617 and BF + F, by 24% higher than the control. ILC72 and MCC463 showed the highest grain yield in P + BF + F treatment, which increased grain yield by 35% and 4% (320 and 50 kg/ha), respectively, with respect to control. MCC741under BF treatment showed a doubled (810 kg/ha) grain yield relative to control. The highest grain yield for P + BF was found in ILC8617 and increased by 28% (340 kg/ha) as compared to control. In this genotype, grain yield in BF + F was also significantly greater than that in the control by 22%, (270 kg/ha). FLIP02-51 grain yield in BF increased by 12% (170 kg/ha) as compared with the control.
In terms of seed yield, ILC72 and MCC463 were more responsive to P + BF + F and ILC8617 and FLIP02-51 in the BF and ILC8617 in P + BF with respect to other treatments. It seems that despite the positive effect of biofertilizer, genetic characteristics of genotypes are influential in plant growth and yield; therefore, it is necessary to select the appropriate genotype for each region so as to make the most utilization of the nutrients and achieve high yield.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the important legume crops and Globally, after beans )Phaseolus spp(., chickpea is ranked as a second important legume crop (Roy et al., 2010). Chickpea is an important source of proteins for human consumption, especially in the developing countries where people cannot provide animal protein or vegetarian by choice (Zaccardelli et al., 2013). Chickpea plays an important role in the maintenance of soil fertility through nitrogen fixation (Roy et al., 2010). Plants are exposed to wide range of environmental stresses. In among, Salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses causing severe impact on crop production worldwide(Rasool et al., 2012).chickpea is a salt sensitive pulse crop and its yield is seriously affected mainly by salts (Turner et al., 2013). Salinity stress in chickpea adversely affects several morphological features and physiological processes like reduction in growth and ion balance, water status, photosynthesis, increase in hydrogen peroxide, which causes lipid per oxidation and consequently membrane injury. Also proline and carbohydrates are accumulated in plant tissue (Flowers et al., 2010; Ashraf and Harris, 2004). This study is designed to determine the effect of salt stress on physiological and biochemical parameters in chickpea genotypes exhibiting differences in salinity tolerance. The results of this study could provide information on potential physiological and biochemical parameters and could also provide deeper intelligence into tolerance mechanisms than the stresses caused by salinity.

This experiment was conducted as split-plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2018 at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. Salinity with two levels of 0.5 and 8 dSm-1 (NaCl) was considered as main plot and chickpea genotype (17 Kabuli-type genotypes) as sub-plot. The characteristics such as soluble carbohydrates, proline, osmotic potential, MDA, DPPH, relative water content, MSI%, were evaluated in 50% of flowering. At the end of the growing season, crop was harvested and seed yield were determined.

The highest proline and carbohydrates content was observed in MCC65, MCC92 and MCC95 genotypes, and the lowest in MCC12 genotype. Result salinity stress caused increased 24, 19 and 19 % in the amount of osmotic potential, MDA and DPPH. Relative leaf water content and membrane stability was showen respectively 10 and 13 % reduction by use salinity stress. Survival percentage, number of branches and canopy height had reduction 6, 22 and 57. MCC65, MCC92 and MCC95 genotypes respectively by 0.183, 0.193 and 0.181 (Kg.m-2) had the highest seed yield and MCC98 and MCC298 had the lowest seed yield. The MCC65, MCC95 and MCC92 genotypes had superior traits, including performance in stress conditions compared to other genotypes, and on the other hand, the MCC98 and MCC298 genotypes had the lowest performance. Among 17 chickpea genotypes, the highest sodium content belonged to MCC95 genotype with 9.5 (mg.g.dw-1) weight and the lowest sodium MCC65 genotype with 5.8 (mg.g-1dw). MCC65 had the highest potassium in non-stress and MCC95 had the highest potassium in salinity stress.

The MCC65, MCC95 and MCC92 genotypes had superior traits, including performance in stress conditions compared to other genotypes, and on the other hand, the MCC98 and MCC298 genotypes had the lowest performance. Finally, further study in relation to the top three genotypes in salinity stress conditions is proposed to identify stress tolerance mechanisms as well as infrastructure as breeding programs.

Cultivation of medicinal plants, such as fenugreek, is important for producing healthy food and preparing raw materials for herbal medicines. Determining the appropriate planting date and tolerance of fenugreek to low temperatures can help to gain more economic yield. The effects of cold and fall planting on the Iranian fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum L.) landraces were evaluated under controlled and field conditions in two years (2013-2015). Ten fenugreek landraces including Azari, Ardestan, Tall, Dwarf, Shiraz, Shirvan, Mashhad, Neyshabour, Hamedan, and Hendi landraces were planted on five planting dates (September 14, October 15, and November 14 in 2013; March 6 and April 4 in 2014). These landraces were also planted on four planting dates (September and October in 2013; March and April in 2014) in pots and were transferred to a thermogradient freezer to apply frost temperatures (-6oC, -9oC, -12oC, and -15oC). Four landraces including Dwarf, Shirvan, Mashhad, Neyshabour landraces were planted on five planting dates similar to the first year in the second year. Shirvan landrace showed more tolerance to freezing temperatures. Evaluation of survival rate showed that the controlled grown landraces had higher survival rates than the field-grown landraces. Mashhad (55%) and Shirvan (44%) had the highest and lowest yield reduction rates as a result of delaying the planting date from September to April. The branch number/plant in the first year of the field experiment and 1000-seed weight (TSW) in the second year had the most important impact on the seed yield. The most suitable sowing dates for the highest seed yield were October 15 and November 14. Shirvan landrace had the highest seed yield in all the planting dates in both years, and it can be recommended for cultivation in the regions.

The agricultural sector needs to reduce the use of freshwaters and using low quality waters instead of increasing demand for domestic and industrial water uses, along with the reduction of groundwater level. Therefore, using saline water in the future for agricultural production is unavoidable. The soil fertility has been reduced due to decreasing the quality of water resources and increasing salinity in agriculture lands. Saline water and saline soil contain high concentrations of salts such as calcium sulfate and sodium carbonate, although sodium chloride is the dominant salt. Salt stress affects various physiological and metabolic processes in plant and may eventually impede crop production depending on the extent and severity of the stress. In the early stages, a high concentration of solutes present in the soil brings about osmotic stress which reduces the capacity of root systems to absorb water and, that start the loss of leaves water. This is accompanied by ion-specific effects that cause the accumulation of toxic concentration of Na+ and Cl− in the cells, which manifest in the form of chlorosis and necrosis. Planting legumes in saline soil is important for conservation of sustainability of production. However, legumes, including chickpea, show low-salinity tolerance and loss yield in saline conditions. To permit crop growth on natural saline soils considerable enhancement of salinity tolerance could be required for the chickpea which is a relatively salt sensitive legume. Therefore, identification and introduction of salt tolerated chickpea cultivars help sustainable crop production in moderate saline areas.

This study was carried out under hydroponic conditions in the greenhouse of Research Center for Plant Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design with three replications to evaluate salinity tolerance of 140 Deci-type chickpea genotypes during seedling stage in a salinity level of 12 dSm-1 NaCl. Hoagland solution had been used in the sand culture method. Recirculating nutrient system was applied, nutrient solution was replaced weekly and salinity of nutrient solution was adjusted daily, but no acidity adjustments were made in the Hoagland solution. Four weeks after salinity application, growth stages, height plant, branch number, survival percentage, remained leaves, shed leaves, membrane stability index, sodium and potassium concentration were measured.

Results indicated that survival percentage of 21 genotypes was more than 76% among which, six genotypes of MCC18، MCC22، MCC29، MCC59، MCC136 and MCC430 showed 100% survival. In the survival range of 76-100, 51-75, 26-50 and 0-25%, 43, 57, 42 and 16 percent of genotypes were in the post-flowering stages, respectively. Plant height increased with increasing survival range, so that the genotypes in the survival range of 76-100% were 4, 5 and 12 cm higher than the survival range of 51-75, 26-50 and 0-25%, respectively. The highest plant was observed in MCC59 genotype with 100% survival range. The lowest number of branches per plant was observed in the 0-25% survival range. With increasing survival range percentage of shed leaves decreased and the percentage of remained leaves increased. The same percentage of shed leaves and the remained leaves were observed in the survival range of 76-100% and 51-75%. In three survival range 76-100%, 51-75%, and% 26-50, the shed leaves were about 50%. The highest percentage of remained leaves (73%) was observed in MCC177 genotype with 75% survival. The membrane stability index increased with raise up survival range. There were no difference in survival range of 26-50 and 51-75% in membrane stability index, but in the survival range of 76-100%, membrane stability 6% increased compared to the two previous survival ranges. The highest membrane stability index observed at MCC34 (53%) and MCC179 (52%) with 85%, 51% survival, respectively. However, among genotypes in 100% survival some genotypes, such as MCC29 and MCC136, had a relatively low membrane stability index. With rising up survival range, sodium concentration decreased and potassium increased. Sodium to potassium ratio was also decreased with increasing survival range. Dry matter productions per plant increased with improving survival range. Dry matter from 0-25% to 26-50%, 51-75% and 76-100% survival range, increased 16%, 24%, and 38%, respectively. MCC4, MCC43, MCC22, MCC49, MCC59 and MCC85 had the highest dry matter productions.

The correlation between traits showed the positive correlation between survivals and remained leaves which is depended on maintaining membrane stability and decreasing sodium uptake in plant. Based on this information, chickpea genotypes have salt tolerance mechanisms and it is possible to use these genotypes for breeding programs for moderate salinity stress conditions.

Drought is undoubtedly one of the most important environmental stresses limiting the productivity of crop plants around the world. An optimal partitioning of dry matter between root and shoot, therefore is of crucial importance for crop yield under drought stress. Deficit irrigation strategy and planting crops with low water requirements and low expectations, for example, Kochia is very important under drought stress. Kochia is a salt- and drought-tolerant species that can be grown on drought soils, yielding fodder in quantities approaching that produced by alfalfa. The aim of this greenhouse study was investigating root and shoot growth of Kochia under drought stress conditions.

To study the effects of drought stress on root and shoot growth of kochia, a pot experiment was carried out as completely randomized design with three replications in University of Ferdowsi in 2013. There were 9 treatments included control (no stress) (NS-NS=100% field capacity (FC)), moderate drought stress (70% FC) during the vegetative phase (MS-NS), severe drought stress (30% FC) during the vegetative phase (SS-NS), moderate drought stress during the reproductive phase (NS-MS), severe drought stress during the reproductive phase (NS-SS), moderate drought stress during the vegetative phase and severe drought stress during the reproductive phase (MS-SS), severe drought stress during the vegetative phase and moderate drought stress during the reproductive phase (SS-MS), moderate drought stress during total growth period (MS-MS) and severe drought stress during total growth period (SS-SS). At the beginning of anthesis, plant height and branch number were recorded. Then plants were harvested and leaves, stems, and roots were separated. The fresh weight of the organs was recorded. Root volume was measured. Leaf area measured using a leaf area meter (LI-COR model) and root area was measured by Atkinson method. Then, leaves, stems, and roots dried in an oven at 75°C for 48 hours until mass reached and dry weight was recorded. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and LSD test were performed using SAS ver. 9.1 software.

Results showed that the highest and lowest plant height, leaf area, leaf, stem and total fresh and dry weight observed in control and severe drought stress during growth period, respectively. Significance of traits related to plant aerial parts due to morphological changes of root plants, which is actually a plant response to drought stress. Also, effect of drought stress was significant on root length, area and volume, fresh and dry weight, root length ratio to plant height. The highest and lowest of these traits were observed in control and severe drought stress during growth period, respectively. Drought stress thereby mostly reduced plant height and increased at least root length, leading to higher root/shoot ratio. Most importantly, the length of root was greater in the moderate drought-treated plants than the control plants at the end of the drought and recovery periods. Number of lateral branches and root dry weight/shoot dry weight ratio did not differ significantly with control. Generally, root and shoot growth under drought stress conditions is reduced that the amount of reduction depends on the growth stage of the plant, intensity and duration of the stress.

Finally, this study showed that the maximum amount of Kochia forage was obtained when the water is 100% FC to increase the number and size of the cells and, consequently, increase the yield. However, Kochia forage decreased 19% by decreasing 30% of irrigation water in treatments of moderate stress during total growth period in compared to the control plants. In addition to saving water, more land can be cultivated.