hadi alem zadeh

Among Amir Kabir's modernizing programs, his military reforms had a privileged position. These reforms, which were rooted in his familiarity with modern European armies, were among his most important reform concerns. The present article, with descriptive-analytical method, aims to answer the question, what was the approach of Amir Kabir's military discourse? And what effect did it have on the idea of forming a modern national army in Iran? It seems that Amir Kabir's military discourse emerged in order to realize Iran's independence from foreigners and establish internal order and security. The findings of this study show that he considered the existence of a modern and powerful army to be the main basis for the modernization and development of Iran; For this reason, with programs and actions such as establishing internal order and security, confronting the influence of foreigners in Iran's military affairs, reforming the structure of the armed forces, equipping the army with modern training, facilities and weapons, establishing a navy and etc., he tried to form a powerful modern army for Iran. However, after the death of Amir, the continuation of these reforms by him failed; But his military discourse was followed in the next period such as Constitutional and Pahlavi I until it led to the formation of the new army in Iran.

Ibn Ḥabīb, a historian of the first half of the third century of the Hiǰrī, sometimes by collecting the works of others in a single collection and sometimes by composing innovative monographs, created works in the Arab history of the ǰāhilī era and the first centuries of the Hiǰrī .Ibn Ḥabīb 's writings are worthy of attention due to the fact that they contain a lot of material and content on the cultural and social history of ᵓArabs, which are often not found in other sources, and examining his data is necessary to know the intellectual and cultural space of the first ᵓAbbāsīd era. Analyzing Ibn Ḥabīb 's works is very difficult due to the brevity of the data, especially the supply of just a few names of people in various subjects; Therefore, this research aims to find out, based on library studies and historical method with a descriptive-analytical approach, by comparing Ibn Ḥabīb 's data with the writings and monographs of his contemporaries and historians, why Ibn Ḥabīb, who himself is a follower, tried to create works with ᵓArab centrality in ǰāhilīya and islām? The findings indicate that Ibn Ḥabīb, in response to the disputed issues in the customary and jurisprudential rulings of her time, devoted herself to authoring such works;In addition to this, he was not oblivious to the criticisms of šᵓubī and the opinions of Christians in questioning the beliefs of Muslims, and in defense of the dignity of ᵓArabs and confronting the doubts of Christians about islām, he presented evidence of the history and culture of ᵓArabs in ǰāhilīya and early islām.

Timår/Tamerlane (r. 771-807/1370-1405) in the third stage of his attacks, the seven-year attack, in 803/1400-1 marched to Syria (Sham). In this article, the grounds and causes of Timur's campaign to the Syria are investigated. In Timår's expansionist and religious policies, attacking the lands of Syria and Egypt was not a priority. He tried many times through letter writing and diplomacy to attract the opinion of the Mamluks to establish peaceful relations. But the reaction of the Mamluks to Timur's proposals was far from tact and diplomatic manners. The grand strategy of the Mamluks in facing Timur was neither peace nor war, while Timår was seeking to establish political and economic relations and to accept maximum support from the Mamluks. Not only the Mamluks did not accept Timår's correspondence, but also killed his emissaries and repeatedly refused Timår's request for the release of one of his generals. It was in this situation that Timår attacked Syria and started killing and destroying its cities, especially the two main cities there, Aleppo and Damascus.

Arabesque (stylized plant and geometric motifs) is sometimes considered as a feature of Islamic art and one of the innovations of Islamic civilization; On the other hand, some art historians, in addition to the characteristics of the Islamic period, have pointed out its pre-Islamic sources, especially the Sassanid and Byzantine sources and the transfer of previous cultural traditions. In this research, in addition to these two sources, Nabatean culture as a rich treasure of ancient pictorial themes has been included as another source in the field of Islamic arabesque plant motifs. The main question of this research is what were the motifs and plant motifs in Nabatean works and based on the similarities between Nabatean and Islamic motifs, to what extent can Nabatean motifs be considered as a source for Islamic arabesque? In this research, with an approach based on cultural history and various evidences, especially material artifacts and reports of archaeologists and obvious cultural similarities, we have shown that the Nabataean motifs can also be counted among the descendants of Arabesque, and on this basis, and considering the multitude of descendants The history of arabesque, the essentialist and mystical views of traditionalists in limiting the scope of interpretation of these motifs to Islamic art, are subjected to a serious revision.

During the Umayyad of Andalusia period (138-421), Saqaliba came to this land while the Umayyad government was very dissatisfied with the competition between the Arabs and Berbers and their continuous conflicts with each other. Hence, the Umayyads tried to attract the Saqalibas and connect them to the court to take advantage of their ability to balance power in the society and continue their monarchy. The present research after reviewing the condition of the Saqaliba slaves and eunuchs aimed to answer the question that what was the role of these slaves in changing the fate of the Umayyad government and transferring it to ʿĀmirids. The findings indicate that after “castration” these slaves were employed in the caliphs’ palaces and harems and due to their close relationship with the rulers, emirs, and government officials, they had access to the government’s secret details. Therefore, they could intervene in power relations and play an effective role in weakening the Umayyad government in Andalusia and giving power to ʿĀmirids.

History of al-Ya’qubi by Ahmad ibn Abi Ya’qubi (d. 897 AD) is a general history that is composed with the combined method, which means that through eliminating the chain of transmission of hadiths and combining the content of hadiths on an event, it has provided a unified coherent account of the event. Al-Yaqubi’s elimination of the chain of transmission, disagreement of some accounts in his book with other hadiths from its other known contemporary sources (Waqidi’s al-Maghazi, Waqidi’s al-Ridda, ibn Hisham’s al-Sira al-Nabawiyya, ibn Sa’d’s al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, ibn Qutayba’s al-Imama-wa-l-Siyasa, etc.), and, particularly, presentation by him of rare and Shiite-like accounts make it necessary to retrieve and verify the hadiths transmitted by him. The research questions are as follows: What are al-Ya’qubi’s sources? Do they have sufficient validity and reliability? And, finally, what was his criterion for choosing the hadiths? According to the research findings, although the hadiths transmitted by al-Ya’qubi on Imam Ali (AS)’s deputization in Medina during the Expedition of Tabuk, assignment of Imam Ali (AS) to collecting zakat and jizya from the Christian community of Najran, the Farewell Haj and Event of Ghadir, Imam Ali’s declining to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr (except for one hadith), Umar’s negotiations with Imam Ali (AS) over determining the beginning of the Islamic calendar as well as over financial affairs, selection of the third caliph (except for two hadiths), and Uthman’s negotiations with Imam Ali (AS) over jurisprudential matters are in agreement with other sources and reliable, in some places, under the influence of Shiite trends or for some other obscure reasons, al-Ya’qubi’s work has presented different and rare accounts whose source is not clear.

Following the invasions of the Mongols and the subsequent establishment of the Ilkhanate, the Islamic territory faced a new situation, which affected the development of the sciences. In this situation, the Iranian Muslim geographer, Abū Yaḥyā Zakariyyāʾ ibn Muḥammad ibn Maḥmūd al-Qazwīnī, wrote geographical Āthār al-bilād wa-akhbār al-ʽibād (Monuments of the Lands and Historical Traditions about Their Peoples), as well as the ʿAjāʾib al-makhlūqāt wa-gharāʾib al-mawjūdāt (Wonders of the Creation and Unique [phenomena] of the Existence). This article aims to answer whether al-Qazwīnī, in his Āthār al-bilād, wa-akhbār al-ʽibād, followed his predecessors' approach or devised an innovative attitude. This article also explores the elements and characteristics of his attitude. The survey shows that al-Qazwīnī, by choosing a generalistic view, included the geography of the foreign territories in his book. He was influenced by the Greek climate categorization and the Iraqi school in geography. His geographical writings have a historical tendency so the biographies could be found in his book.

The common theory is that the Mamluks opposed the hereditary rule, yet the period of Baḥrī Mamluk (644-784) witnessed nearly a century of hereditary reign of the Qalāwūn dynasty. Why and how to establish the hereditary monarchy of the Qalāwūn dynasty is the question that this article seeks to answer. Attempts by the first great Sulṭāns of the Mamluks, Aybak and Baybars, to maintain the monarchy within their dynasty failed; But the other powerful Mamluk king, Qalāwūn, was able to inherit the government from his family. Among the sons of Qalāwūn, Sulṭān Nāṣir Muḥammad, in spite of twice ousting and relinquishing the monarchy, played a greater role in consolidating the hereditary rule of this dynasty. In the third period of his reign, which lasted 31 years, Nāṣir Muḥammad, based on previous experiences and by gradually eliminating powerful rivals and potential claimants to the monarchy, prepared the ground for the acceptance of the pattern of inheritance among the Mamluks. After him, his sons and grandsons ruled Egypt and the Levant (Shām) for more than four decades (741-784). Although the sons of Nāṣir Muḥammad were deposed several times by the Mamluk princes, no emperor violated their dynastic rights until the end of the Mamluk period.

Tarikh Al-Ya’qubi, written by Ahmad ibn Abi Ya’qub (d. 284 AH), is one of the general histories that has been compiled in a combined method; that is it presents a whole coherent account of a historical event by removing the chain of narrators as well as integrating several records of a same event.There are some factors in Tarikh Al-Ya’qubi that make it necessary to retrieve its resources as well as evaluate the authenticity of its narrations: the removal of the chain of narrators, the inconsistency of some reports with the accounts of other well-known contemporary resources (Al-Maghazi, Al-Sirah Al-Nabawiyyah, Al-Tabaqat Al-Kubra, etc.) and specifically including unheard and Shii-like narrations.The main questions of this research include: What are the resources of Tarikh Al-Ya’qubi? Are these resources sufficiently credible? And finally, what was Al-Ya’qubi’s criterion in authenticating the narrations?According to the research findings, although Al-Ya’qubi’s accounts on the role of Imam Ali (as) in the Prophet-led battles of Uhud, Khandaq, Bani Qurayzah, Bani Jazima, Hunayn and the Conquest of Mecca are valid and in line with other resources, his history - influenced by his Shiite attitudes - sometimes includes different and rare accounts, the resource of which is not known.

Abū ǰaᶜfar muḥammad ibn Ḥabīb Baḡdādī, a prolific writer and historian of the third century AH, has been attributed more than thirty-seven works, of which only eleven are available. Of these works, eight are in the category of historical works and three are in the category of books of literature and vocabulary. It has been attempted in this article to present a new typology of Ibn Habib's historical writings. By analyzing the themes and content of Ibn Ḥabīb 's surviving historical works, they can be classified into two major types of multiplegraphy and Monography (tribegraphy, mothergraphy and nomengraphy). al-muḥabbar is a multiplegraphy that is a combination of different types of historiography under 175 titles has various content in sīra, biographies of ṣahāba, genealogy, women status, history of the Caliphs, manāqib and maṭālib figures and information on Arab customs; but al-munammaq fī aḳbār-i qurayš and ummahāt-u al-nabī is an instance of monography which can also be termed as »tribegraphy« and » Mothergraphy «. Other works of ibn ḥabīb such as asmāᵓu al-muḡtālīn min al-ašrāf fī al-ǰāhilīya wa al-islām, asmāᵓu man qutila min alššuᶜarāᵓ and muk̠talif-u al-qabāᵓil wa muᵓtalifuhā which are among Ibn ḥabīb's innovations and are of the monograph type, can be categorized as nomengraphy.

Slave bargain that was common in the West of Europe for a long time continued after the conquer of Andalusia by Muslims in the last decade of the first century A.H. Meanwhile, slaves from the northern regions of Spain, especially Slavic lands, entered the Andalusian markets. These slaves, known in medieval Islamic sources as Saqaliba, were often bought by Jewish merchants and transferred to Andalusia in the west Islamic world. The main question of the research is that where was the prime origin and geographical dispersion of Saqaliba and how did they enter the community of Andalusia? Findings indicate that Saqaliba were a group of white people living in Eastern and Central Europe that had entered Andalusia as slaves. The Umayyad rulers of Andalusia, who were harassed of ethnic and tribal competitions of Berbers and the Arabs used this opportunity for their government permanence in Andalusia. Thus, the Slave bargain of Saqaliba has been beneficial for all the three sides of this triangle transfer i.e., the slaves, the Jewish merchants, and the Umayyad governors.

Abu Jaᶜfar muḥammad ibn Ḥabīb Baḡdādī (245 AH) is a literary man and historian of the third century AH who has tried in genealogy, history, vocabulary and collecting poems of poets. Summary writing, mentioning names in various topics without mentioning the source are the features of his historiography. This research aims to find out that what sources ibn Ḥabīb used in compiling his works and why he was satisfied with the brevity of the data? findings of the research indicate that ibn Ḥabīb used the monographs of the mašāyik̠ and his contemporaries in compiling Al- muḥabbar and Al-munammaq. However, he was not merely a narrator of works and tried to correct the narrations of others and sometimes offered different opinions. Furthermore, his writings are not devoid of innovation. He also had other works with the titles of asmāᵓu al-muḡtālīn min al-ašrāff fī al-hhilīya and al-islām, muk̠talif-u-al-qabāᵓil wa muᵓtalifuhā, kunyat al-ššuᶜarāᵓ wa man nusiba ilā ummihī min al-ššuᶜarāᵓ .

uring the Islamic era, the region of Ṭabaristān or Māzandarān, located in the north of Iran. Its unique regional and natural advantages, including humid climate, fertile soil, dense forests, and the proximity to the sea make this region an appropriate region for agriculture, production of crops and fruits, and the development of some jobs such as fishing. In this paper, based on ancient sources, the authors have tried to survey the economic situation of Ṭabaristān in the early Islamic centuries. The main questions of this survey are how these regional advantages affect the economy of Ṭabaristān? And what kind of jobs and handicrafts were developed in this situation? The findings from the research show the flourishment of particular handicrafts such as weaving carpets, local rug, and mat, also a range of textile and wooden handicrafts in Ṭabaristān.  Besides, in this period, we can see a connection between many jobs related to agricultural products, mineral materials, aerobic organisms, and marine animals.

Investigating and evaluating Islamic historical and geographical sources and determining their authenticity or imitation help the researchers for using those works. Such investigations of later works, which are assumed to be based on earlier works, are necessary. One of those sources is the khatimah (epilogue) of al-Rawza al-Safa, which researchers are at odds with each other over its author or authors. Authors of the paper after deep exploring of content of "Khātimah" and also applying comparative method have found out that "Khātimah" of Rawḍat al-ṣafā is in fact co-written by Mir-khand, author of Rawḍat al-ṣafā, and his grandchild Khand-Mir who made a final formulation for his grandfather's notes and also added some points on his his work. The study also showed that all data of "Khātimah" (about ninety percent) were borrowed from other writers, especially previous geographers, and only ten percent of its content is from its authors, Mir-Khand and Khand-Mir, and, obviously, this part is authentic and notable with the specific importance.

The situation of women in Safavid court and haram drew the attention of the European travelers who had come to Iran for political or religious missions. Some of those travelers described the women in Safavid haram as lazy and useless people that their duty was just for giving pleasure to the king and bringing up his children. So, they did not have any kind of education or learning skills and spent their life in vain. But there are other reports by the Safavid historians and European travelers which indicated that many haram women were educated and had social activities. Moreover, there are a number of Safavid paintings that supported the latter point of view. This paper examines and compares these two views to understand the situation of a significant class of women in Safavid era.

Marinid who ruled Morocco for three centuries, treated Dhimmis (non-Muslims living in Islamic state under the protection of the government) with tolerance. In such situations the Jews enjoyed religious and social freedom so that a number of them including Banu Ruqqasa managed to enter the court and were put in charge of crucial positions. After analyzing sources, the process and reasons behind appearance of the Jews in Marinid court will be assessed and their role in Bureaucracy, their influence on government and Islamic society will be described in the present paper. As some rulers were not religiously devoted and they required financial sources while Jews were wealthy and familiar with bureaucratic affairs, they managed to enter Marinid court. However, although they were supported by the rulers, they were not useful in achieving government's goals, as they were mostly focused on maintaining their interests and organizing conspiracies against Muslims.

The confiscation of delinquent official's properties as an administrative punishment started from the beginning of Islamic era and certainly, Umar's reign. Regardless of such function, this practice became one way of acquiring income for Muslim rulers. In this survey, besides investigating the conceptual changes of confiscation, the practical domain of the term has been inquired in Iran at the Islamic period up to the end of Safavid era. From the concerned data about confiscations exerted in Islamic Iran, the authors try to present the history of official's confiscation, and show that confiscation has usually been considered as a complementary programmable income source.

Delivering khuṭba to which a considerable attention was paid by Arabs in the Days of Jāhiliyya, after Islam, influenced by the Qurān and teachings of the Prophet, departed from Jāhilī thoughts and paganish implications, colored by monotheistic ideas, and became the most efficient device for propagating new religion and its instructions and revealed doctrines. According to historical sources, in the Islamic invitation environment, khuṭba -especially the Prophet Muhammad's khuṭbas- in addition to the excellence of the subject and content, found a supreme goal. Moreover, it took a definite and fixed form and structure. Above all, since khuṭbas placed in the context of the Friday and the Eids Prayers and became a religious duty, found a thorough Sanctity. These features, obtained through Prophet Muhammad's Propercy, transmigrated khuṭba from being a device for Braggings (mufākhira) and downplayings (munāfira) (in the Days of Jāhiliyya) to the divine level of recitation of God (dhikr-Allāh) (in Islam), which in turn represented the evolution of Arabic literature.

The work of middleman (Dallāl) was legal in Islamic middle age but under supervision of the market inspector (Muḥtasib). Even a wholesaler or a retailer was obligated to earn just regular interest, and raising the prices which leads to economic instability was disallowed. There was a group, among the middlemen, called “Jullās”, who disrupts economic stability in Bazar. This study examines the role of so-called Dallāl and Jullās in Morocco and Andalusia in the Middle Ages. The findings show that Jullās, in order to earn more profit, used illegitimate methods in violation of the established laws; even they didn’t respect the social norms. It was the duty of master of the market (sāḥib al-sūq) to oppose this group and hoarders, to control economic activities in Bazar properly.

The phenomenon of Conversion to Islam in the territories conquered by the Muslim Arabs, is one of the ambiguous and controversial topics in the Studies of Islamic History. Major part of the social transformation of Copts in Islamic Egypt returns to their Conversion from Christianity to Islam. Gradual changing of the majority to a minority group under Muslim rule was a complex process, because Muslims not with Expulsion of the Copts but with their Conversion to Islam were to become the majority in this country. The Fatimid al-Hakim era, saw the Conversion of a large number of Coptic Christians to Islam. Coptic Conversion, in this period, in the political, social and religious pressures and constraints, were imposed by the caliph on the Coptic community. However, the process was not complete because, after the forced Conversion was removed many of the converts returned to their past religion,ie Christianity

Exploring inner character of a person through his appearance is the subject of physiognomy which has been discussed by a group of scholars since past times up to now; for example Hippocrates -several centuries before Christ- paid attention to it. But physiognomy has not been counted as a known and independent science till Aristotle.Islamic sources mentioned Polemon of Greece as an expert in physiognomy. It was introduced to Islamic world through translation of Greek sources, especially medical books. Scholars like Rāzī, IbnSīnā, IbnRushd and others discussed in this field and some of them wrote independent treatises and books in this regard. Fakhr al-DīnRāzī’s treatise entitled Risāla fi al-Firāsat is an example of these works. This treatise has been translated into Persian by Lutfullāh ‘AzīzHirawī (7th century A.H.).

Historical reality of Jaber b. Hayyan who has called himself Imam Sadeq’s student in many works attributed to him and referred to Imam Sadeq in many cases, questioned by Powel krows, The greatest scholar in Jaberian al chemy field. Powel krows extracted and discussed many contradictions in these notes and evidence, attributing to Jaberian collections. This essay seeks to explain four types of these evidences and notes of Jaber to Imam Sadeq through a historical and textual analysis then criticize and assess Powel krows’s view points about an important issue in history of science, that is, Jaberian Problem; and since most of scripts attributed to Jaber have not been published and are not available for scholars, so the dialogue remains open. It is expected that this article will be an answer to this Problem.

After his Hijrah, or Migration, to Medina, with the help of the Muhajirun (Emigrants) and the Ansar (Helpers), Prophet Muhammad succeeded to make the enemies of Islam, the Idolaters, the Hypocrites and the Jews surrender to the Islamic State in Medina and managed to spread the domain of the Islamic State's authority nearly to the whole of Arabian Peninsula. In the last momths of his life, however, he was confronted with the uprisings of the Riddah (Apostasy) People and several claims of false prophethood in the midst of which he passed away.With the devotion of loyal Companions of the Prophet and under the leadership of the First Caliph, the young Islamic State in Medina rose to protect Islam and strengthen the roots of the newly-established state in Medina.

The immensity of the Karbala incident and its vast and profound social and political impacts in the history of Islam, and especially that of the Shiah, lead every inquisitive and interested mind that wants to better understand historical facts, towards a more through grasp of the sources which have registered reports on this incident. This is especially true in light of the orientalist's claim that most historical accounts in Islam had written-wise remained unaccounted for until the middle of the 2nd century A.H.In this paper, by giving a brief introduction on "Maghtal al-Husayn", a major work on the topic, by Abu Mukhannaf, we have tried to demonstrate that many of the main relators of the àshura incident had been eyewitnesses present on the battle- scene themselves; and hence, the information that has been passed to us this moment-of-truth event is of great historical value to scholars.