جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « تجارت خارجی » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

Mashhad as the capital of Khorasan province in Qajar period held a high status in terms of economic and commercial issues, so that the city can be considered a big port in the northeast of Iran for goods import and export. Considering the great commercial capacity of Mashhad, some American trading houses and companies that were active in importing American products and exporting goods from Iran, settled in Mashhad. Focusing on new discovered documents, this descriptive-analytical study sought to see what American trading houses entered in Mashhad trade market in the late Qajar dynasty and which goods they traded in Mashhad. Taking into account the lack of resources and taking a detailed approach, the findings showed that most important American trading houses and companies active in Mashhad were Shargh Carpet Company, Tavshanchian Carpet Company, Gharehgazian Company, and Singer Corporation. Examining the commercial status of Mashhad, the companies imported various kinds of fabrics, sewing accessories, sewing machines and other kinds of machines into Mashhad, and exported such goods as carpets, dried fruit, opium, animals’ guts, wool, cotton, and tragacanth to America. Most of the exports were raw materials.

The present study aims to investigate the impact of the Samanid, Ghaznavid and Buyid governments on foreign trade in their respective territories based on an analytical method and archival-documentary data collection. The results show that the formation of the Samanid, Ghaznavid and Buyid states from the end of the third century AH led to a relative stabilization of the political situation, which in turn resulted in a growth of the urban economy, including markets, industry and especially trade. The large amount of Samanid silver coins found in Europe (due to the importation of slaves and other trade goods from Eastern Europe) indicates the outflow of a large amount of liquidity from Samanid territory, resulting in an unfavorable balance of trade. In the Ghaznavid period, on the other hand, liquidity increased due to the inflow of huge gold and silver reserves, which effectively facilitated trade and minting. In western Iran, the Buyids, unlike their two eastern neighbors, used the gold and silver reserves to support the textile industry, which allowed trade to flourish. Finally, a similar pattern can be observed in all three states: Measures such as minting coins of high fineness, maintaining the value of the coins, securing the roads by eradicating bandits, placing signposts in the deserts, building caravanserais and bridges over the rivers, Rabat and wells along the roads, which significantly increased and improved domestic and foreign trade.

In the 16th century, international trade underwent profound changes, the establishment of trade corporations and new trade routes being among the most significant proofs and evidence. The Muscovy Company was one of the first companies to successfully explore and incorporate a new marine route into international trade. It was also able to initiate the first direct commercial and diplomatic relations between England and Iran through the northern seas and Russia. However, after twenty years of business work in Safavid Iran, it ceased its commercial activities in Iran and English commerce. This paper investigates the causes that prompted Muscovy Company to discontinue trade with Iran via the northern seas with Russia, as well as the effective factors that led to this decision. This paper employs a descriptive-analytical approach based on library sources to investigate the reasons for the temporary break in commercial relations between England and Iran in the second half of the 16th century. Our research indicates that the political relations between the Safavid, Ottoman, Russian, and English governments, as well as the ensuing wars and peace, competition, and hostile relations, negatively impacted the company's operations. The geographical and security conditions that dominated the company's route created numerous obstacles for the business of the English merchandise. In addition to overcoming these obstacles, they had to compete with ancient and experienced Turks, Armenians, and Venetians on the Iranian market. The aforementioned impediments persuaded the London-based leaders of the Muscovy Company to abandon trade with Iran via the northern routes.

In the 2nd half of the 19th centrury, the cotton production decreased as a result of the US civil war, and this issue prompted some of the governments, especially Russia, to enter Iran to compensate for their cotton deficit. Since Russia had imposed and implemented the contents of two treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay and dominated the Iranian market, it took steps to purchase and procure cotton from Iran. Sabzevar which had become one of the major centers of cotton cultivation since long ago, due to its gepgraphical position, was among the regions that drew the attention of the Russian merchants to purchase and export this valuable produce, so that the Russians to achieve their aim, they set up trading enterprises in this city. These trading enterprises, in addition to exporting large amounts of cotton to Russia, had a great role in encouraging this region’s farmers to cultivate quality cotton. The present paper, using the library method and with relying on archival documents and evidence of the foreign ministry and the archives of the national library of Iran, intends to study and analyze the acticivities of the Russian trading enterprises and ginneries in cotton exports to Russia. The findings of the research indicate that in the late years of the Qajar era Sabzevar had a major role in producing and exporting cotton to Russia; a matter which resulted in establishment of Russian trading enterprises and ginneries in this city.

British consulate in Mashhad had two Consul Generals in the first seven years of its activity: Major General Charles Smith McLean and Ni Elias. McLean was more reputed than Ni Elias but seemingly Ni Elias was a better manager. Providing exact and field reports, the Consulate General tried in those years to recognize the main economic and commercial decisions of Britain in India and England in order to promote Britain’s position in comparison to its rivals, especially Russia. So, it endeavored in the first place to accurately determine the position of the country and then propose major strategies to related decision makers. The related documents on economic issues included foreign and imported goods to the eastern Iran, introduced the trade routes to these cities, and reported the status of their rivals, especially Russia. Moreover, the documents included some analyses that could affects British officials and decision-makers. All the information had been summarized statistically and quantitatively in tables. All the above-mentioned data could give a picture of the economic and social conditions of the eastern cities of Iran of those years (1889-1896 AD/1306-1314 AH).

British consulate was founded in Mashhad in 1889 AD/1306 AH. The office that was the first foreign political agency in Mashhad, could become the primary executive part of England in a short time. The agency that seemingly operated under the General Governor of India but was not responsible to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the country, presented annually its commercial and economical estimates in relatively comprehensive reports to higher authorities. Though the survived reports of the first seven years of the consulate are better compiled than the second seven years, but in the years that is the subject of this study (1896-1903 AD/1313-1321 AH) provide us with accurate field statistics about the economic status of the eastern cities of Iran (i.e., its main field of consulate’s activity). The main content of the annual reports are the types of the imported and exported goods, the name of the regional and international foreign partners (especially Russia, England, and Afghanistan), and the effective transmitting methods. According to the documents, seemingly in the seven years in the region the Russian government was economically superior to British government and the British representatives endeavored to make solutions for balancing the economic power and overcome the long standing rival. Therefore, they tried in their usual economic analysis to include many issues like sociological aspects of the region.

Mashhad as a center of Khorasan province was of great economic and commercial importance; as far as it can be considered as a large port in northeastern Iran for import and export of goods. Because of the good commercial status of Mashhad, some of Russia and Governmental merchants proceed to build the firms, commercial offices and companies in Mashhad. The aim of this study is to answer to two main questions: 1) what were the factors affecting the trade between Mashhad and Russia and the problems facing this trade from 1304 to 1344 AH? 2) which Russian trading companies entered into Mashhad trade in the time period in question and traded in which goods? Despite the lack of references about this study and the need for a detailed study with a descriptive-analytical approach, the findings indicate that establishment of Trans-Caspian Railway, dispatching Russian commercial staffs to mashhad and the activities of Russian consulates in Mashhad are some factors affecting trade between mashhad and Russia. And according to boycott of the Russian goods, insecurity and restrictions of Russian traders at Mashhad during the late Qajar, some firms such as Iral, Makrowich, Frank, Noble, Khloopkem, Stuackin, Venshtorg and Cantero Sayus imported oil, food, commodities and luxury goods and Russia firms supplied raw material for themselves.

Iran’s eastern borders have historically been one of the country’s most important economic routes, and developments in the region and within the country have had a direct impact on the prosperity and decline of the routes. Mirjavah is one of the cities in Sistan and Baluchestan province in eastern Iran. It is located near the border with Pakistan. The inhabitants of Mirjavah are Baloch. Mirjavah became important in contemporary history first due to Russian-British rivalries and it then became important because of the railway that connected the city to Quetta. It was considered one of the most important customs in the east of the country. The main reason for the development of this city was foreign trade and the existence of railways. The border town fell into economic prosperity after Pakistan seceded from India. As a result, people’s lifestyles changed. Researchers were sent there by the central government in the 1970s to identify Mirjaveh's economic situation. This research was based on some of these reports. The question of the research is: what was the economic situation of Mirjavah in the Pahlavi era? The results showed that smuggling has flourished due to the lack of prosperity in agriculture and formal trade, and the actions have been ineffective.   

The present study aimed at investigating the economic and commercial situation of Mirjavahduring the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah and consisted of three parts: agriculture and animal husbandry in Mirjaveh, trade and customs, and smuggling in Mirjavah. In the first part, geographical location and climate show did not allow extensive agriculture and animal husbandry. Considering the second part, people’s lives and problems have reportedly been investigated after Pakistan seceded from India. Regarding the third part (smuggling of goods) studies have shown that trafficking has flourished for various reasons.

About the sources used and research methods, two very important sources were written about this city. A View of Mirjavah is a manuscript written by Assadollah Alavi and Faramarz Asadzadeh in 1975. This manuscript is in the library of the Zahedan Program and Budget Organization Also, Mirjaveh Economic Report by Mahmoud Zand Moghadam is in the library of the Tehran Program and Budget Organization which was prepared in 1976. Both works have examined the city from an economic, social, and especially commercial point of view. Sources include tables and pictures and additional descriptions. This research has been written based on these reports, documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and interviews with several people from Mirjavah.

This article was written in all three cases about Mirjaveh's economic issues (agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade). Mirjaveh air is warm and its natural environment is dry and the rain in Mirjaveh is in the form of showers. Floods occur due to low and high ground. Documents showed that there was no possibility of extensive agriculture and animal husbandry in this city. Also, this article has covered problems such as the size of the area, lack of border control, and lack of sufficient and trained forces at the borders. It was one of the problems that fueled the issue of trafficking.    Lack of coordination between Pakistani and Iranian staff was another problem that affected the city's economy and lack of traffic control at the borders has been another economic and social problem of this city. The present study also discussed the type of commercial goods smuggled. In the early years of the second Pahlavi regime, most of the gold was smuggled across the border which the government at the time had made great efforts to control. Wheat was another commodity that was always smuggled into this city. Gradually, this trend has changed and with the strengthening of the central government, the goods became more diverse and simpler. It has changed from gold and coins to wooden beds, tea, spices, and old foreign clothes. Also, smuggled vehicles had changed from camels to cars. But the city faced economic hardship during this period of border poverty and most of the people's livelihood was through smuggling  Thus, the research findings showed due to the lack of prosperity in agricultural occupations and official trade and the proximity of this border city to Zahedan, trafficking from Mirjaveh route has flourished. The Pahlavi government in the 1960s and 1970s paid special attention to the eastern borders and sought to establish better trade relations between Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Therefore, the government had several plans for Sistan and Baluchistan province. The plans were ineffective in the case of the city of Mirjavah and the city continued to suffer from smuggling and economic poverty in the 1970s.

Tabriz was considered as one of the most important centers of Iranian trade in Ilkhanides. Although due to the collapse of the Ilkhanides, there was an interruption in the foreign trade of the city, Tabriz trade was revived in Qara Qoyunlu and then Aq Qoyunlu eras. From the Ozon Hasan Aq Qoyunlu period, Tabriz became a major market for the exchange of Indian, Chinese, Qepchagh, Iranian, European, Ottoman and Sham goods. There were varieties of Indian spices, Yazdi, Samarqandi, European, Aleppo, all types of sable skins, squirrel, fox, porcelain and Chinese goods such as cloth, gold embroidered blouse, atlas, musk, wax, nail and silk of Ghilan, Mazandaran, Sharvan in Tabriz. Merchants of different lands were gathered in the city and exchanged their goods. The Tabriz merchants exchanged Iran's manufactured goods in Ottoman and Sham with the goods of other lands. In this article, the foreign trade of Tabriz is examined in the Aq Qoyunlu period. Aq Qoyunlu roler understanded with the trade revenue so they prepared the prospering of foreign trade of Tabriz .It can show the position of the Tabriz business and its importance in international trade in this era.

The time of Nader Shah (1148-1160 H) is considered as the period of rebellions and continuous civil and foreign wars in the history of Persia, which followed the fall of the Safavid dynasty. This influenced the social and economic sectors in Iran. This study is supposed to indicate the effects of Nader Shah’s militarism policies on Iran foreign trade. It uses descriptive and explanatory methods to interpret the problem. One of the important discussions in Iran economy at the time of Nader Shah is the downturn of the Iran foreign trade, which was continued from the Safavid era. Due to Nader Shah’s militarism policies, the situations became worse and the high costs of his social-economic policies were obstacles to the economic growth. Nader’s militarism policies which led to getting high tax, demolishing the agricultural and economic foundations and internal insecurity, ended up with a decrease in the production of the principal export goods, i.e. silk and wool. Reduction of these commercial goods increased their prices, which in turn impacted the foreign trade of Iran. Overseas companies faced reduction in gaining benefit because of the internal situation of Iran. Therefore, their activities and communications with Iran decreased excessively.

Sultan Abad, Iraq, is the old name of the city of Arak, which was built in the period of Fathali Shah Qajar in (1231 AH) by his commander Yusuf Khan Gurji. The early philosophy of the city was the creation of a military center and the construction of a garrison for the security of the region, which over time, the field of trade and economic activity were growing. This research is based on a descriptive-analytical approach relying on various documents related to that period, following the examination of the economic and commercial conditions of this region from the constitutional to the end of the first period of the Pahlavi. The purpose of this research is to explain how exports and complaints from foreign merchants and foreign companies in Sultan Abad to the relevant ministries, the National Assembly and the factors affected the foreign trade of this province, such as carpets. The findings of this research show that the attention of the central government and foreign companies along with the Armenian participation of Arak has become one of the main centers of carpet production in the mentioned period. On the other hand, during the First World War, followed by political, economic and logistical destabilization, slowed the development of Iraq. But with the establishment of the Pahlavi government, some of the organizational and administrative centers, such as financial institutions, the Chamber of Commerce, and joint stock companies, were established there and the prosperity of commerce in the aforementioned period increased.

One of the most important debates during Reza Shah era was the expansion and development of Iran's foreign trade with new countries that hadno contribution in Iran's foreign tradebefore the First World War. Japan was the only Asian country that had not such a strong history of political and economic relation with Iran, but could sharply make certain contributionto Iran's foreign trade.
The present article attempts to investigate trade relation between Iran and Japan in Reza Shah era on the basis of archive documents, press articles, and library sources.

Iran had witnessed massive economic, political, social and cultural evolutions in the fifty-year era of Naseri(11313-1264/1897-1848). This era was contemporaneous with international developments and industrial revolution in Europe which had a tremendous impact on Iran’s economy and society. The economic condition of Iran in this era which had been formed partly under the influence of Western countries had caused a different situation for some businessmen, which in turn had a direct effect on the country’s social and economic life from the form of foreign trade to consumption patterns.The starting point of modern history of capitalism in 19th century in Iran’s society had been accompanied by a devastating movement. The penetration of Western countries from the very first steps left extremely noisome impacts economic, social and political context and structure of this society, to such an extent that the subsistence economy of Iranian’s rural communities, which had its own special traditional agriculture and trading, affected by the entry of Western countries’ commodities had been fallen into the abyss of destruction. Cultivation of lucrative products became widespread and substituted the subsistence agriculture. Importing European goods such as: English textiles and other industrial and factory manufactured products caused damage to Iranians’ handicrafts. By the invasion of foreign commodities to Iranian’ markets and their total influence over domestic markets due to their variability of products and consequently changing the taste of all social classes and also lack of governmental support for national productions, handicrafts ended up in destruction. This factor had seriously damaged the rural self-sufficient economy, to such an extent that the rural self-sustaining economy began to decline without finding a convincing and new alternate in this area.The main focus of this research is on studying the impact of importation on national production by adherence to the basic framework of the Iran’s economic domain in Naseri era. In the first stage; the foreign trade of Iran in this era will be investigated, thereby drawing some conclusions associated to the European countries relationship with Iran. Then, the impact of excessive importation on national production will be studied. Finally, the present research attempts to answer the following questions; what was the effect of agricultural economy and industries’ traditional methods of production and Western commodities’ importation on Iranian’s life style? At this juncture, were some imported items capable of monopolizing Iran markets or not…?

Business development in Tamerlane Era has played a significant role in the urban development and the booming economy of Iran. The present paper, thus, discusses the factors that have contributed to such a development of domestic and foreign trade as well as its consequences. During his rule, Tamerlane took safety and security measures along the roads, and established Caravansaries and Rebats for caravans’ comfort. In order to develop the cities, he also attracted the foreign trade. Ortaq system, which was common in the Ilkhanids Era, was once more popularized in this era. Tamerlane and his successors took Tamqa from the Merchants and Artisans and got duties at Gateways. In foreign trade, Tamerlane started relations with the nearby as well as western countries. To revive the Silk Road trade in Iran, which had been brought to a standstill since the fall of the Ilkhanids, he blocked the trade route to the north of the Caspian Sea, which ran through Khwarazm towards Tana and Kafa in Gipchagh plain, and instead redirected it to the south of the Caspian Sea. The result of such policies has included the development of urban cities such as Tabriz, Soltanieh, Samarkand, Herat and Hormuz. Some Iranian businessmen transferred the Iranian domestic production to Bursa, and Timurids government gained much more benefits through duties taken from the trade Caravans. Besides, effect of such developments in terms of agriculture and urban trade has also been considerable.

The mass production of Silk and its importance as goods exportable and strategic caused its monopoly by the Shah-Abbas I (996-1038 A.H.) and then the recruitment of the Armenians merchants in his monopoly. Therefore, the question is what function had the three related factors (Silk, Monopoly politics and Armenians) in Safavids economy and politics. For a careful investigation, after a review of the Silk production, this article is going to study the causes of adoption of the monopoly politics and the role of Armenians in its performance. The Armenians, as an experienced trader people, were able to find the new Markets for Silk in all around the World. Hence, the investigation and evaluation of their activities in this field form another part of this study. In the end, the situation of the Silk trade and Armenians merchants will be investigated until the fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722. On the whole, study of the three mentioned factors shows that they affected Safavids foreign economic- political relations, developed external trade, increased import of the monay and coins and brought about the foreign trade in a balance.

Spice was considered a major agricultural product exported from the East to thewest before the Renaissance. However, with the extensive developments intechnical principles of production and increasing growth of European products andartifacts beyond Europe and increased demand of the west for different agriculturalproducts in the Renaissance, Eastern communities had no choice but to increasethe amount of agricultural products through changing subsistence farming tocommercial agriculture in order to provide cost of consumer goods imports anddifferent investment. The findings of this research indicate that Iran in Qajarperiod, especially after age of nassery, began the first stages of commercialagriculture and at the end of the period achieved significant success and adopted aLogical path in modernizing. But this direction changed out of the emergence ofother factors; so modernization process in Iran was diverted to another route.Keywords: Foreign Trade, Money out of the country, Agricultural Trade, Silk,Cotton, Rice, opium.