جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « سلجوقیان » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

The Sasanian era is one of the most brilliant periods of Iranian art before Islam. Sasanian metalwork art has a great value because it was influenced by ancient artistic elements and in other words, it was cast in the form of taste and taste of Sasanian era Iran. This art to some extent followed the traditions of the Achaemenians and especially the Parthians and after the emergence of Islam and the Arab conquests until the time we are discussing (the Seljuks) and even after that, the art of metalworking directly received this influence from ancient Iran. In this article, we aim to investigate the indicators of Sasanian metalwork art and the degree of influence of the Seljuks from the Sasanians using the historical research method. The review of sources and articles shows that Sasanian metalwork works have different formal, role, decorative and structural characteristics. Among them, the influences and inspirations of the form and role, in addition to the Islamic periods, are more visible in the Seljuk period. Because the Iranians had a rich civilizational background, and the conquering Arabs and other conquerors encouraged them to immediately use this cultural heritage and use the same features and indicators of the past metalworking art, which was manifested in a magnificent and excellent way in the created works. And it continued.

During the Seljuq period, there were various types of tribal EQTA, civil EQTA, military EQTA, civil and courtier EQTA, and personal EQTA. In the civil EQTA, although the clans could achieve a lot of economic power, but due to many reasons, including limited land allocation, lack of settlement Constantly in EQTA, the inability to produce structures similar and parallel to the central government, they could not directly confront the government, but the granting of military EQTA, although at the beginning of this period and during the era of sultans such as Aleb Arslan and Malik Shah, led to the success of the Seljuks and the maintenance of its loyalties. became the central government, but it gradually caused the economic and political power of the emirs of the period and after that the desire to increase and develop political power in them and caused the military and political weakness of the central government. The emirs of the period went to the point where they started to rebel and disobey the authority of the sultanate. In the wars of succession between the Seljuk kingdoms, on the surface, they used their military power to support the kingdoms claiming the monarchy, but in secret, in order to dominate the structure of the monarchy and guide and lead the affairs related to the monarchy, they not only dethroned the desired kingdoms and deposed the other. They even went as far as killing the sultans and caused the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty

The Saljukid period is one of the most prominent eras in Iranian urban and economic history; as the formation of the economic foundations and urbanization of the contemporary age goes back to this fundamental and foundational experience in the sociopolitical history of Iran. Saljukids’ nomadic lifestyle resulted in a change in land use and social organization in areas under their control and created new land ownership systems. Gradually, with the establishment of security in communication routes, trade flourished, and subsequently population centers were formed, and cities and provinces grew and prospered because of good economic conditions. This article studies and analyzes how the Saljukids’ rule played a role in the economic growth of the Kerman province of 5th and 6th century AH, through utilizing the descriptive-analytic method. The findings of the research show that a chain of factors such as the extent of the territory of the Saljukids of Kerman, having two capitals, diverse climate, its dominance on Kerman-Baluchestan communication roads, and the prosperity of the south-north trade route in this period resulted in a different economic and urban development trend for Iran’s southern provinces. Many cities and provinces saw significant economic growth subsequently new population centers were created and thus the Saljukid rulers attended to administrative divisions and bureaucratic systems more carefully.

The Kerman Seljuk Sultanate or Al-Qaward (432-583 AH), one of the most important local governments in Seljuk history, was formed by Qaward in Kerman and controlled Kerman to the coast of Oman for one hundred and fifty years. It was the source of changes in the economy and land and sea trade; so that during this period, Kerman became one of the commercial bases in the territory of the Great Seljuk. Although due to the challenge between Sultan Malik Shah and Qaward, the founder of the Kerman Seljuk, several wars took place which caused a strain in the their relations, but finally they made peace and Al-Qaward tried not to interfere in the conflicts between the princes and the central government. This study aimed to identify the factors of survival and continuity of this local dynasty during the critical period after the death of Malek Shah. The results showed that the political attitude of Qaward's successors towards the central government in not intervening in the Seljuk conflicts and their attention to commercial and economic prosperity in the long term became the secret of its survival and stability. This research tries to analyze the subject from different angles based on the historical research method with a descriptive approach and referring to the original sources.

One of the main characteristics of the economic system in a part of the Abbasid Caliphate and its contemporary semi-independent governments was the expansion of the feudal system. The system of akhta was initially formed with the aim of solving the economic problems of the government, especially in paying the salaries and duties of the soldiers. But its excessive growth and expansion, especially during the Seljuk period, had harmful consequences. The devastating effect on the economic and social life of the villages and the lives of the villagers was one of the most important consequences. With this description, in this research, an attempt is made to answer this main question by relying more on the text of Atba-ul-Katba, why the expansion of the feudal system during the Seljuk period had devastating economic and social effects on the lives of the peasants, and what are these effects? Based on the findings of the research, the growing greed of feudal lords for the expansion of feudal lands, the weakness of the government's supervision of the work of the feudal lords, the lack of sufficient knowledge of feudal lords about agriculture and the continuous exploitation of the villagers, all the causes of the destitution and poverty of the farming villagers and in Their social and economic life had completely collapsed.

Sufis were one of the Muslim social classes in the Middle Ages and were respected by the strata of Islamic society. After gaining power, the Seljuk Turks, especially the Great Seljuk, needed political and social acceptance to consolidate their power. They realized that one of the ways to achieve acceptance was to honor Sufiya and enjoy public publicity and their benediction for the continuation of the monarchy. The Seljuqs believed that communication with the Sufis was one of the components of confirming their rule. This relationship will cause the society's tendency towards the sultans and eventually cause their political and social acceptance. This research studies the position of the Sufis in the period of the Great Seljuqs or the Seljuks of Iran and the ups and downs of communication between them. The method of conducting this research is descriptive and analytical. The results of the research show that the Seljuqs, considering the importance of Sufis' position in society, established good relations, and respected them to achieve their goals, i.e., gaining political and social acceptance. In the meantime, some Sufis refused to communicate with Seljuq due to their opposition to the Seljuk government.

This article compares the political and military approaches of the Seljuks of Iran and the Fatimids of Egypt in the way of handing over the military fiefdoms and exploitation to the amirs of those two governments. Through the comparative method based on description and analysis, the article has reached the findings that the Seljuks and Fatimids - who were thinking of expanding their influence - in a similar behavior in the field of land tenure system based on fiefdoms, used lands to increase motivation and the pure obedience of the military commanders. But over time, this approach led to the authority of military commanders and the decline of these governments. Fatimids, unlike the Selajqahs, who only granted the vassalage to military amirs, also gave the bureaucrats the benefit of this type of vassalage.

During the first half of the 5th century A.H. (10th century A.D), the Seljuk rose to power and conquered vast Islamic territories from the Jeyhoon River to the Mediterranean Sea, which led to the downfall of feudalism and the revival of the Sassanid kingdom. With political stability and economic prosperity, the pottery industry flourished and advanced in terms of production and decoration. The creation of a multitude of potteries with diverse colors and intricate decorations was facilitated by the endorsement of courtiers and the upper classes, along with the acquisition of artistic products and the establishment of trade and cultural connections with China. This flourishing artistic movement was further amplified by a meticulous comprehension of color, exceptional decorative skills, and an ardent commitment to achieving equilibrium and harmony. Consequently, these captivating potteries not only contributed to the advancement of other artificial arts like metalwork, painting, and book design but also played a pivotal role in their growth.
       During the 6th century A.H., porcelain was manufactured using a combination of materials such as quartz powder, soft soil, and potash. This mixture resulted in a white base that served as a canvas for a wide range of decorative motifs. The primary hub for porcelain production was Kashan, while Neyshabur, Samarkand, and Bamyan also played significant roles in its manufacturing. In this era, an alkaline glaze was preferred over lead glaze due to its compatibility with the porcelain body. This glaze imparted a beautiful turquoise-blue color to the earthenware surfaces, and its smooth, glass-like texture allowed for intricately engraved designs to be created.
Among the types of engraved decorations in the 6th century, Silhouettes stand out due to their shadowy appearance. These designs were crafted in black color beneath either ivory or turquoise blue glaze, making them truly unique. This pottery represents a shift from traditional to contemporary styles and draws inspiration from slip-painted pottery. It shows an array of geometric, botanical, zoological, and anthropomorphic patterns, layered in a captivating manner. The Seljuk to Ilkhani period is renowned for its exceptional pottery, and this particular technique is considered a prime example of its excellence. Interestingly, it also displays some similarities with Toreutics art. Engraving ceramic underglaze to create figural motifs and calligraphy is a complex and challenging process that involves removing parts of the glaze under the turquoise and ivory glaze to achieve the desired black color effect. In addition to engraving, underglaze painting is also utilized for the silhouette pattern, which is less common than the carved pattern. The underglaze is adorned with turquoise, blue, azure, and transparent cream inscriptions, as well as simple plant or geometric motifs in small sizes.
       Based on research and the evidence in museums of Iran and other parts of the world, silhouette pottery can be categorized into nine distinct groups. These groups include bowls, pitchers, vases, Albarello (medicine containers), money pots, plates, mugs, and jars, listed in order of their abundance. Each group has its own unique dimensions and details, making them different from one another. Furthermore, these groups can be further divided into subgroups based on their specific uses.
       Kashan, Ray, Gorgan, Neyshabur, and Sirjan are widely recognized as the primary centers for the production and discovery of this particular style of pottery. Furthermore, recent archaeological excavations and surveys conducted in various sites, including Zolf-Abad in Farahan, Tahayq in Khomein, Moshkin-Tepe in Zarandieh, Aweh in Saveh, Anda-jin and Zino-Abad in Hamedan, and Qal´ eh Sang in Sirjan, have yielded remarkable examples of silhouette pottery.
       Different types of decorative elements are incorporated into the artwork, encompassing, anthropomorphic, zoological, mythological, botanical, geometric, and calligraphic patterns. Additionally, a wide range of decorative designs like banquet scenes, romance scenes, hunting scenes, flowers, plants, and Persian poems are utilized. The majority of human figures are depicted on the ivory glaze, engaging in activities such as dancing, sitting, riding horses, and playing music. These figures are often portrayed without intricate facial details. Animal figures, on the other hand, consist of horses, deer, rabbits, ducks, fish, hounds, wild animals, and birds in mid-air.
Mythical creatures such as the sphinx, griffin, and harpy are formed by combining the unique characteristics of various animals to create a symbolic concept. Abstract botanical designs, inspired by nature, are seen in works by Khata'i, Eslimi, Toomari, and Tak. The motifs on containers can be either raised or drawn inside or outside. Geometric patterns, such as stripes, are often used as space dividers and add to the beauty of a vase. Kufic calligraphy, Naskh-e-Shekasteh, and Thulth are commonly engraved on the inner body, bottom, and outer edge of containers, often with themes of good prayer and hadiths for the holder.
       At the Cultural Institution of Museums of the Mostazafan Foundation, a total of twelve potteries have been analyzed. These containers come in various shapes such as bowl (3), bottle (2), pitcher (2), money pot (1), mug (1), vase (1), jar (1), and plate (1). The pottery designs feature a range of patterns including plant, animal, and bird, human, mythological, calligraphic, and geometric figures. Among the eleven decorated dishes, there are Eslimi designs such as Dahan-Azhdari, floral (goldar), ivy (pichak-dar), leafy (barg-dar), and palmette (Nakhl). There are six samples adorned with depictions of a horse galloping and racing, a rabbit leaping, birds in a face-to-face stance, and a horse with a rider in motion. The shattered container shows a composite figure, featuring a lion's body, an eagle's wings, and a human head (known as a Sphinx). This amalgamation of distinct characteristics from various creatures gives rise to a remarkable phenomenon, embodying the strength and finesse of these creatures. There are two instances where inscriptions in Knotted Kufic Script (Kufi-e-Gereh-Dar) and simple thulth (Thulth-e-Saddeh), can be found. These inscriptions contain the phrases Al-Dawlah, Al-Ezza, and Al-Karamah Lasahiba. Additionally, all the vessels are adorned with narrow or thick horizontal and vertical bands, small asymmetrical rhombuses, vertical wavy lines, thick grooves, and fragmented lines.
       This research aims to identify the stylistic and structural features of Silhouette pottery in the 6th and 7th centuries AH (10th and 11th centuries A.D) and analyze the concepts of its motifs. The study was conducted using a descriptive and data analysis method, examining the physical and tangible aspects of the pottery as well as conducting comparative library and documentary studies. The main question of the research is how this type of pottery is made and decorated, and what are the concepts behind its motifs? Twelve samples of Silhouette pottery from the Cultural Institution of Museums of the Mostazafan Foundation were used as the basis for the research. The results show that in terms of typology, the pottery includes bowls, vases, pots, albarellos, jars, plates, money pots, and pitchers. The main centers of production and discovery were the cities of Kashan, Rey, Jorjan, Neyshabur, and Sirjan. The decorative elements include geometric patterns (12 cases), botanical motifs (11 cases), animal motifs (6 cases), calligraphies (2 cases), anthropomorphic motifs (1 case), and mythological motifs (1 case).

The main opposition of the Ismailis' government and thought were the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk monarchy. The Ismailis didn't stop to react and utilized any opportunity to harm them, especially the Seljuk government which was accessible for the Ismailis. The outcome of such conflict was confrontation, positions based on conflict a between the Ismailis and the Seljuks. Thus, studying the background of this continuous and pervasive conflict is an undeniable necessity which will reveal a part of Iran's political and intellectual history. Therefore, the current research investigates the Ismailis movement and its ties and conflict with the Seljuk government by using an analytical- descriptive method. Also, their positions will be studied in different viewpoints. The results of the current research indicated that the relationship of the big Sunni government of the Seljuks with the Ismailis was established as based on the attitude of jurisprudence school of the Sunni scholars. In addition, the lack of a peaceful solution to express dissatisfaction was one of the main reasons for the violence of the Ismaili sect and its conflict with the Seljuk government, the most important result and consequence of which was the radicalization of the political atmosphere and the Ismailis' resorting to terror. The opposite point of this situation was the neglect of the opportunity for dialogue, the use of force to suppress the opposition and the application of social, political, religious and cultural pressures, discrimination and social restrictions by the Seljuks.

Waqf, as a favorable tradition, has always been regarded by the Islamic governments; while, less attention has been paid to its cultural functions. Seljuk statesmen (429-589 A. H) and their dependents, including men and women, implemented their desired cultural policies with a thoughtful approach towards the endowment. Considering the influence of Seljuk women in the ruling class, this question arises that, which capitals these women were relying to be actively present in the society. This article with a historical-social approach and relying on the historical texts and descriptive-analytical method of research and inspired by Pierre Bourdieu's theory (2002) about the legitimacy of symbolic capitals, has a new reading about the cultural activities of women in the important areas of Seljuk territory, that is, the parts covering the center and west of Iran. According to the findings of this research, although the political position of these women, along with other elements such as regionalism and Seljuk traditions has been one of the obstacles to the centralization of the power institution, but women like Arslan Khatoon, with the endowment of public places (school, mosque and market), have played a vital role in the continuation of the Seljuk rule during three centuries and in fact, these women have succeeded in expanding the official discourse by assessing the symbolic assets.

Political power increased at the end of the Abbasid caliphate period (447-656), especially during the Nāṣir period (575-622). The return of the political and military power of the Abbasids, rather than being indebted to the Nāṣir period, was due to the measures and political conditions of the two previous caliphs, Mustarshid (529-512) and Muqtafi (555-530). The problem of this research is to examine the factors influencing the change in the relationship between the caliphate and the Seljūks during the period of these two caliphs, which led to a change in the process of restoring the position of the caliphate during the period of Nāṣir. The question derived from the problem is, what were the factors of restoring political and military power of the Abbasids during the period of Mustarshid and Muqtafi? It seems that during the caliphate period of these two caliphs, With the reduction of political-military power of the Seljūks due to the intervention of third powers, the political and military power of the Abbasid caliphate was restored. The findings of this research, which was conducted with historical method and statistical analysis, showed that among the six caliphs before Nāṣir, the contribution of two caliphs, Mustarshid and Muqtafi, was more important in reviving the political and military status of the caliphate. This importance is due to the personality and length of the caliphate period of these two caliphs, intra-dynasty differences and the instability of the Seljūk sultanate period.

Contemplating the rise and fall of governments, their nature and structure is one of the important topics of historical thinking and historiography, which has always been the concern of some thinkers. They have proposed theories by formulating the rules governing the development of states. Ibn Khaldoun is one of these thinkers who proposed a theory to understand the rise and fall of states. The Seljuq dynasty, which ruled the land of Iran for about two centuries, is the first Illyrian state that dominated this land, and from this point of view, it is important to think about how this state was formed. The current research aims to explain the formation of this dynasty based on Ibn Khaldoun's theory in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings indicate that the variables mentioned in Ibn Khaldoun's theory, such as the Illyrian origin of the Seljuks, tribal nervousness, the reproduction of the power structure using force and the weakened nervousness of the established government (Ghaznavids), were the most important factors have played a role in the rise of the Seljuks. 

The Seljuks were a Turkic family and a tribe of Ghaz Turks who migrated to Iran from Transoxiana. One of the measures that they took to maintain their position was to establish family ties. The political marriages of the Seljuks, which took place for various political reasons, had political effects and consequences for them and the Seljuks without considering that these marriages will leave negative effects in the future and through these marriages, the Seljuks hoped to be better able to exert their influence in the region. Although in the Seljuk rule, these political marriages could be described as both internal and external, but the form of extramarital was much more influential. This study tries to answer the question by descriptive-analytical method that what were the effects and consequences of Seljuk political marriages for them? The results of the study show that the achievements of these marriages in most cases were in the form of transfer of power, legitimacy and spiritual power for the Seljuks, stability of borders, elimination of enemity, consolidation of power, gaining an ally and finally maintaining the Seljuk rule.

One of the important events of the saljukian history is the collapsing of the dynasty and to know about its effective factors. The Turkish tribes who attained empire from desert dwelling, with creating a disciplined army and benefitting from Iranian governmental rules established a powerful kingdom, ruled Georgia, asia minor till Mediterranean sea. However, not after a long time, internal and international changing caused dividing and downful. One of the unique factors such as grazing powerful bureaucrats and politicians have adopted a cynical and impact of their actions that brought down and collapse the hierarchy of government of the great Seljuks the internal.

Throughout history, Qazvin and its surrounding areas have always been the target of migration and movement of different socio-economic groups due to the three geographical and climatic conditions (mountains, cities, and plains) and the establishment of the highway of east-west and north-south of Iran and the intersection of communication routes. In the 4th and 5th centuries, the historical developments of the Eastern lands of the Islamic Caliphate based on this geographical and climatic situation, caused the presence of Turkish nomads in addition to the mountaineers and city dwellers of this region. This issue gradually brought about significant changes in the general situation of Qazvin. Therefore, Qazvin during the Seljuk era witnessed the interaction and confrontation of three groups in terms of political and socio-economic aspects: city dwellers, mountain dwellers, and desert wanderers. Therefore, in the leading article, an attempt is made to answer the main question of how these three groups interacted with each other and what effect it had on the public atmosphere of the city while exKeywords: Qazvin, Seljuqs, urban dwellers, mountain dwellers, desert wanderers.

Succession wars began from the very moment that the Seljuks state was formed. Seljuks had a tribal insight about power. By this way of thinking, power belonged to all members of the tribe and the ruling family who controlled all the power was a representation of the members of the tribe. This system was useful in tribal life or living in a steppe, but it did not help to preserve the unity of a great empire such as the Seljuk empire, which feared civil war every time a successor was about to be chosen. This article is devoted to answering this question: How do Islamic and Iranian political thoughts, help to solve the succession crisis and legitimacy in the Seljuk era? This study claims that Seljuks considered two models of Islamic and Iranian political thought to solve the succession crisis. It seems that in the period under study, Islamic theoretical foundations found great importance in the matter of succession and were effective in maintaining the political order and stability of Seljuks, hence we will discuss its components and the opinions of Muslim thinkers in that matter

Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk did most of his country and military service during the time of Alp-Arsalān and Malikshāh, and as a minister under their rule. In Sayr-ul-mulūk he expresses his ideas regarding bureaucracy and different levels of governance, including the military structure of the state, which is one of the main pillars of power. The present study collects data using written sources, and examines the data using content analysis. We attempt to answer the following questions: “As a bureaucrat, what views did Niẓām-ul-Mulk hold towards the military?” and “Which merits does he mention when it comes to the professional status of military?” In other words, the purpose of the present study is to define the status of the military, and to extract a model of military merits based on Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk’s viewpoints.It is suggested that the military are given major focus in Sayr-ul-mulūk. Although Niẓām-ul-Mulk criticizes the military’s activities during his own time, he enumerates several merits in Sayr-ul-mulūk as important factors in forming the military’s status. These include military experience and strength, respecting the superiors, not intruding on people’s property (professional aspect), the multi-ethnic nature of the military, and the neatness of military men’s looks and tools (personal aspect).

The Seljuk government had two major internal barriers to establishing centralized and stable bureaucratic management. The first obstacle was the lack of stable financial and monetary resources. The second obstacle was the lack of a centralized communication and transportation system in the political realm. The dominance of the natural economy in the society and the low prevalence of money in the market and trade relations caused the shortage and limitation of monetary resources in the central treasury. Because the government had to collect taxes in a non-monetary way. Lack of liquidity in the government treasury was the most important obstacle to the establishment and consolidation of the bureaucracy. The policy of the Seljuk government in Assignment of Igta’ and non-cash payments to government officials was due to lack of liquidity. Also, the lack of a transportation system and continuous means of communication within the political realm led to the inability of the Central Court to continuously oversee the provinces and the activities of local and province governors. These two conditions led to the disintegration of the Seljuk state and the collapse of the central bureaucracy.

Nizamiya schools significantly influenced the Seljuq era's intellectual and religious development. It's required to analyze some of this institution's underappreciated functions. The founder of the schools, Khawaja Nizam al-Mulk, had a religious policy focused on Sunni religious centralization. To legitimize Seljuq and establish Sunni religious unity against rival currents, he followed a unique religious disposition based on Shafi'i-Ash'ari's teachings. He defined its criteria using the "Good-creed" concept. In the Nizamiyas, he continuously used this disposition in educational and propaganda proceedings. This study investigates the components of this model in a descriptive-analytical manner by examining the conditions under Khawaja's ministry and the aims that led to developing a religion-based political strategy. This technique resulted in a balance between Sunni sects (Nahle) as well as the separation of religious beliefs in the type of traditionalists and heretics in a religious arena. According to the findings, Khawaja enhanced the Sunni principles and unity versus the religious propaganda from opposing currents by using this model in the religious sector. He legitimized the Seljuqs' performance and survival in the political realm by Good-creed standards and implemented it in Nizamiya schools for organized institutionalizing the Good-creed model.