جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "cognitive semantics" در نشریات گروه "ادبیات و زبان ها"

This article has been written with the aim of how Rumi expresses in the face of Quranic verses and narrations and the quality of using rhetorical tricks in explaining mental concepts and mystical terms. The authors first read Rumi's Masnavi by examining verses from six books in a random manner and analyzed interpretive metaphors based on the theory of cognitive semantics, after stating the theory of semantic semantics and conceptual metaphor according to this theory, among the forms of conceptual metaphor, ontological metaphor was examined and the evidences of interpretive metaphors have been analyzed in three branches of metaphor by interpreting Quranic verses and hadiths, by interpreting mystical allegories and terms, and finally metaphor by interpreting Masnavi anecdotes. In this study, library method and content analysis were the most effective in interpreting mystical terms and allegories. This indicates that Rumi has described his mystical concepts and mystical experiences after their interpretation in order to objectify them, in the name of objective writings to convince the audience and express mystical emotions. In this process, in some interpretations, he has sometimes described one mental thing with another mental thing or an objective phenomenon with another objective thing.

Image schema, a concept within cognitive semantics, posits that human experiences shape conceptual structures in the mind, which can be expressed through language. Therefore, tangible and embodied experiences within the conceptual system lead to the production of image schemas. Through a comparative lens, this study explores cognitive processes and structures related to image schemas in Persian and Kurdish children's poetry. Specifically, it investigates how these conceptual structures facilitate the understanding of abstract themes within the children's literature of these two languages. The findings indicate that the predominant image schemas in both Persian and Kurdish children's poems are movement-based. This prevalence can be attributed to the thematic content of the poems, where concepts such as play and work inherently involve movement and activity. Following this, the power image schema ranks second, reflecting educational frameworks that encourage children to overcome obstacles in pursuit of an ideal world. The volume schema ranks third, relating to the expression of abstract concepts such as sadness, peace, and happiness within tangible spatial containers.

Colour, as one of the high-frequency concepts, constitutes an important part of the expressive realm of any language. Given that language, thought, and culture are inextricably linked, studying language while considering this inseparable connection can influence the way language is viewed and taught. This research focuses on the educational and cognitive study of the aforementioned languages, with an emphasis on the field of colour. The colour words studied are the equivalents of the eleven colour words proposed by Berlin and Kay (1969). The authors' goal is to examine and compare the conceptual metaphors of "colour" in Persian and Arabic, define the target domains, key maps, and similarities and differences. The research method is descriptive-analytical, and the data were analysed within the framework of the cognitive semantics approach. Data analysis indicated that: 1- The basic colour terms (BCTs) in Persian correspond to their Arabic equivalents, with the difference that "آبی" in Persian, unlike "ازرق" in Arabic, is not considered one of the colour terms that have a metaphorical-linguistic representation. 2- The assumption that metaphorical compounds are only made with the main colour words is reinforced, because no model has been found for brown, violet, pink, and grey in the two languages, in addition to blue in Persian. 3- Most of the metaphors related to colours in both languages have a cultural nature, and it does not seem very realistic to imagine them as being equivalent.

This article is a comparative study on the relation between the Prototype Theory and historical-philological semantics in Iranian languages. Regarding the actual entailments in the framework of the Prototype Theory (Rosch: 1978), in which words considered to be the central and peripheral members of a semantic category, in correlation with a morpho-phonological study on two Persian words, RUX and RŪY, a number of diachronic samples of radial categorization (Lakoff: 1990) are going to be proposed, considering the Old Iranian   as the prototype of a particular semantic network, kept in the corpus of the word. From a general perspective, this article sets out the function of the Prototype Theory and its consequences in Iranian etymological and literary studies.

Cognitive linguistics is a relatively new approach in the field of linguistics, focusing not only on the theoretical aspects of language but also on its interaction with other phenomena such as the mind, rationality, environment, and social experiences. One of the central topics in cognitive semantics is the concept of "Conceptual metaphor." In this approach, metaphor is not merely a rhetorical device but rather a tool of thought—a phenomenon in which one conceptual domain is expressed through another. Religious and supplicatory texts are rich sources of cognitive metaphors, as they often deal with abstract and non-experiential concepts, which are structured using metaphorical systems. This study, using a descriptive-analytical method, seeks to explore the metaphor of the Arabic term "Raḥmat" in Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah and its Qur'anic origins, noting that many Qur'anic expressions are reflected throughout the supplications of this text. The research reveals that the abstract concept of the term "Raḥmat" in the epistemological system of Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah is shaped by experiential cognition and conceptual metaphors. This systematization and embodiment in Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah closely align with the Qur'anic verses. The most prominent method of concretizing the concept of "Raḥmat" in Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah, similar to the Qur'an, is through existential conceptual metaphors of "substance" and "container." In this collection, "Raḥmat" is conceptualized through domains such as shelter, destination, rain, treasure, taste, and others. It is also occasionally depicted through spatial orientation, where divine mercy is symbolized as being in an elevated position, while divine punishment and affliction are associated with lower positions—emphasizing the precedence of mercy [Raḥmat] over punishment.

Proverbs are rooted in the culture and public opinion of the people. Therefore, it is possible to get to know the culture, thought and customs of some nations to some extent. Therefore, examining the imaginary patterns of Emirati dialect proverbs will lead to a deeper acquaintance with the culture and customs of the people of that region; Because it examines the deeper relationship between language and culture. And it leads us to the point that through the understanding of conceptual schemas and abstract concepts, a relatively better understanding of language and culture and some of their functions can be achieved. The present study tries to use descriptive-analytical method to investigate the schemas in Emirati dialect proverbs extracted from the Emirati Al-Rumsa book, based on the model of Likaf and Evans' image schemas in the framework of cognitive semantics, the abundance of schemas It depicts the existing and frequency of each of these schemes and analyzes them. The results of this research indicate that from the total of 22 proverbs selected from the book "Al-Ramsa Al-Emirati" movement schema with 30%, capacity schema with 22%, power schema with 17%, adaptation schema with 13%, and schema with Continuity and fission have 9 percent each, respectively, with the highest frequency. Also, the studies show that the pronouns "Ali and Fay" have a pre-typical and focal meaning that explain the concept (on-in) respectively And when they are used in different contexts, they undergo development in meaning, in the sense that as a result of the effects of accompanying words, other meanings other than the focal meaning are formed around them

Metaphor, being addressed either as a decorative element or as a cognitive process, has attracted the researchers' attention for a long time. According to the findings of cognitive linguistics, humans create and store fundamental conceptual constructions called image schemas in their minds so that when thinking about abstract matters by transferring these concrete constructions to language facilitate and complete the perception process. Saadi Yousef and Ahmad Shamlou have conceptualized many abstract concepts in their poems with the assistance provided by schemata. This research, descriptive-analytical method, while examining and analyzing the schemata in two selected poems of these two poets, to explain the way of thinking and, also, the foundations of their understanding of the world around them. As being indicated through the results, abstract concepts such as death, life, change, and immortality have been embodied in the form of these images and the three schemes of volume, movement, and force have been able to communicate in an organized, organic, and coherent manner with each other and in line with a certain goal. This may lead to the production of meaning and finally put the abstract concept of immortality and impact in the form of a visual tableau before the audience.

In cognitive linguistics, conceptualization plays an important role in discovering the meaning. From the point of view of Lakoff and Johnson, conceptual metaphors are not only linguistic matters, but also thought mechanisms whose representation can be studied not only in language but also in social behavior and culture. The purpose of this research, which was carried out by analytical-descriptive method, was to answer this question: To what extent is the theory of conceptual metaphor effective in religious texts? In this article, with the help of metaphor theory, we have tried to understand the concept of Surah al- Juma, which is one of the five surahs of the Holy Qur'an, called Mosabbahat, because this surah is based on two main and fundamental axes, first, monotheism and divine attributes, and the purpose of the mission of the Prophet of Islam, Ma'ad and also emphasize the importance of the issue of Friday prayer, The results show that from the perspective of cognitive semantics, the application of conceptual metaphor theory using the two-domain model of destination and origin of Lakoff and Johnson can be effective in explaining the conceptual structure of Quranic components and the meanings hidden in the structure of Quranic verses. to reveal and in this way influence the attitude and worldview of the audience and provide a general insight into a human scale to facilitate the understanding of the verses. The results of this research can be useful in literary analysis and Quranic research and in the field of cognitive linguistics.

Cognitive semantics shows us the mind's mechanism for creating meaning. Two important tools in this field of study are metaphors and metonymy. In this article, metaphors and metonymies that help us understand the concept of a new phenomenon, COVID-19 disease, have been studied and investigated. The social, economic, cultural and political effects of this phenomenon have formed metaphors and metonymies that can be the subject of serious linguistic studies. In this article, using a large body of linguistic data, a comprehensive analysis has been done in the framework of cognitive semantics. 4077 conceptual metaphors and 3852 conceptual metonymies have been extracted from the corpus, and after the investigations, it was found that in 60% of the metaphors, the concept of “disease” is understandable for Persian speakers with the help of the concept of “human”. As well, the conceptual metonymies present the unique frame of meaning for "COVID_19" that differs from other disease.

Context is considered a crucial factor in constructing metaphorical meaning in a dynamic discourse situation. Drawing on Kovecses's idea of "pressure of coherence", the current paper sets out to study the role of context in recruiting metaphorical expressions in newspaper articles and headlines. Data is gathered from newspapers and news websites in Iran, then based on Kovecses' model (2015), the kind of context that triggers metaphor is specified and the data is analyzed using the tenets of Cognitive Semantics. With regard to the research questions, the paper has come to the conclusion that novel metaphorical expressions are recruited under two kinds of pressure; namely, the pressure of context (culture, ideology, climate, geography, discourse topic, discourse elements, spatial and temporal context) and the pressure of body. Furthermore, some factors such as cultural components, body structure and invariance principle may impose constraints on the way mappings are done between domains in metaphorical expressions. Finally, priming as a cognitive process can prompt the use of particular metaphors both universally using shared bodily experiences and/or locally using unique bodily features such as physical paralysis, blindness and left-handedness. 

In Cognitive-Semantic approach, distinctive embodied experience and differential contextual features in discourse are regarded as the main sources of metaphorical creativity in language. Kovecses (2015:5) put these two influential elements of metaphorical creativity under the cover term "pressure of coherence". When people metaphorically conceptualize a conceptual domain in a situation, they are under the “pressure of coherence” (Kovecses, 2005). What this means is that they are to obey two simultaneous pressures: the pressure that derives from the human body and the pressure of the global and local context in which the conceptualization takes place (Kovecses (2015:93). It should be mentioned that mapping of features in this kind of conceptualization is not ad hoc or arbitrary, but obeys the limitations posed by invariance principle.  Lakoff and Turner (1989: 199-204) define the invariance principle as: "Metaphorical mappings preserve the cognitive topology of the source domain, in a way consistent with the inherent structure of the target domain". Meanwhile, priming as a cognitive procedure which comes from our frequent embodied experience and everyday routines triggers the use of metaphors in discourse (Kovecses, 2015:191). In the present paper we aim to analyze Persian newspaper article and headlines based on tenets of cognitive semantics and we try to find appropriate answers for the following questions:
How does situational (physical, linguistic, cultural, social) context influence the creation of novel metaphors in Persian newspaper articles and headlines?
What roles do body and physical components play in creating metaphors in Persian newspaper articles and headlines based on the "pressure of coherence"?
How does speakers' knowledge of discourse elements influence creating novel metaphors in Persian newspaper articles and headlines?
What are the roles of priming and invariance principle in creating metaphors in Persian newspaper articles and headlines?

Drawing on Kovecses's idea of "pressure of coherence", the present paper tries to study the role of context in creating and understanding metaphorical expressions in newspaper articles and headlines. Data containing 27 headlines and news texts on economy, politics, religion and sports is collected from the newspapers and news websites. The analysis is carried out descriptively using tenets of Cognitive Semantics such as embodiment of meaning and other cognitive procedures such as priming and invariance principle.

Metaphor as a linguistic, literary and cognitive device can play a significant role in persuading people and forming axiological systems in language (Charteris-Black,2004). In the present research, we try to find how context an embodiment can play roles in recruiting metaphors in Persian newspaper articles and headlines. The main assumption in this research is that based on the relation between universal embodiment theory, differential experiences and various context, Kovecses's principle of coherence accounts for the variety of metaphorical expressions in natural discourse. To reach this aim, we made use of Cognitive-Semantic framework and cognitive procedures such as "invariance principle" and "priming". Using Kovecses's (2015) model of contextual factors in analyzing the data indicates that different contextual factors are at work when we try to produce or understand metaphorical expressions. Besides, novel metaphorical expressions are derived from the interaction between context (situational, linguistic, conceptual-cognitive and bodily context) and embodiment.

Regarding the research questions, the results showed that novel metaphorical expressions are formed and comprehended under two kinds of pressure: the pressure of context and the pressure of body. Besides, the way mappings are done between domains in metaphorical expressions are constrained by some factors such as cultural components, body structure and invariance principle. Finally, since human body and physical properties of human beings operate both universally and locally, priming as a cognitive process can prompt the use of particular metaphors in two different ways. For instance, when we address the shared bodily experience of human beings, body acts as an element of "pressure of coherence"(Kovecses, 2015) and triggers the production of metaphors that originate from the conceptual metaphor "society as human body" (Musolff,2019) and that are common among a large group of people. On the other hand, unique bodily features such as physical paralysis, blindness and left-handedness which are considered as individual bodily specificities can have an influence on which metaphor to be used by particular people. Therefore, it seems that the results in this article go against the traditional view that body and context are in a diametrical opposition in creating metaphorical expressions.

The present study aims to analyze the verb “bastan” (to close) using cognitive semantics. The meanings of “bastan” have been collected using library method, extracted from dictionaries including Sokhan, Dehkhoda, Sadri Afshar's Persian Dictionary, Persian Spoken Variety, and the Etymological Dictionary of the Persian Language. This data was used for comparative analysis. In this research, a qualitative research method has been used to describe the meanings and to determine if there is a relationship among them using the image schema theory in cognitive semantics, specifically the models proposed by Evans and Greene, Evans and Evans. The analysis of the schematic meanings of the verb “bastan” showed that out of 26 meanings, 11 are force schemas, indicating an obstacle of a physical or abstract nature, and 18 are link(age) schemas, either physical or abstract. In one case, in addition to the mentioned schema, a splitting schema was considered. Etymological considerations show that the verb “bastan” originates from a single root in its current form: -band in ancient Persian, bandh (badhnāti) in Sanskrit, and -band in Avesta. This matter does not allow the existence of two different unrelated schema, because the connection between meanings will be lost. This research argues that associative schemas show the relationship between the various meanings of the polysemic verb “bastan”.

The present study attempts to analyze and classify different types of conceptual metaphors and their method of conceptualization among Persian compound verbs based on cognitive semantics approach in metaphor analysis. The research method is descriptive-analytical and corpus-driven. Data collection was done through Sokhan's 8-volume dictionary as well as Persian language database. The research data consists of more than 1000 Persian compound verbs in the form of 20 common Persian language combinations, for each of which 50 current Persian language combinations were examined and analyzed. In fact, the objective of the authors is to analyze the types of conceptual metaphors and their frequency as well as to show their conceptualization among Persian compound verbs .The main objective of the current research is to answer the following questions: 1. How is metaphorical conceptualization formed in Persian compound verbs? 2. Which of the common conceptual metaphors has a higher frequency of occurrence? The results showed that in this corpus there are five domains of  source, object, container, human being and material, which all belong to ontological metaphors are with a big difference (especially  in comparison with the first two domains) the  most frequent source domains  in this corpus of Persian.

Human uses language as a tool to communicate with others and expresses his knowledge and requests with that. Every country or culture has its own special language. One of the most eloquent and conceptual ways of transferring language experience and communication is the proverb. This language phenomenon represents a clear vision of its society circumstances whether in cultural, political or historical terms and it is unique in its own kind, especially, if the proverbs be common, because their commonness shows that these wisdoms have been taken from society depths and they have been occasionally modified. Most of these proverbs have been received in visual schemes taken from the human imagination. In other words, human experience is an inseparable part in all of them. The present research has surveyed the visual schemes in Mosul common proverbs represented by George Lakoff and Johnson and it has shown that the represented volumetric schemes by the linguists have been conceived according to the human abstract behavior and attitude and their growth is obvious in Mosul and they have high frequency among the other visual, dynamic and communication schemes and also, in power scheme, the top-down scheme has the least frequency. Most of the focus of Mosul people is on the details of affairs and the scheme of being inhibited which mostly  consists of coming to a dead end is considerably visible in Mosul proverbs. In all the schemes, human thought and its physical aspect has a major impact on its metaphysical aspect

The present study aimed to study the preposition /az/ (i.e., from) in primary school textbooks. Polysemy of prepositions is one of the sources of many students’ perception. A text corpus developed for this study from Farsi, Practical Science, Heavenly Gifts, and Social Studies of elementary school textbooks grades 1 to 6. To analyze the data, Rosch’s (1975) prototype theory and Tyler and Evans’ (2003) systematic prepositions polysemy approaches in the cognitive semantics framework were used. At first, the sample sentences which contained the preposition /az/ (from) were extracted to form the sub-corpus. The set of senses that are obtained from the sub-corpus are “Type”, “Whole Part”, “Tense, Source”, “Comparation”, “with the help of, By, With”, “About”, “Orientation”, “Motion”, “Metaphor”, and “Complement”. Statistical distribution of meanings in the whole sub-corpus (general domain) was “Whole Part”. The senses of the proposition among lessons and grades (domain restricted) are not similar to the prototype sense. This research showed that the sense “Complement” is the prototype for grades 1 to 3, and the sense “Whole Part” is more frequent in grade 4 to 6. Different forms of this preposition are used at the beginning, middle, and end of sentence. Furthermore, the findings showed that the sense “Metaphor” is the prototype for the book Farsi, the sense “Whole Part” is the prototype sense for Practical Science and Social Studies, and the sense “Tense” is the prototype sense for Heavenly Gifts.

Metaphor has a long history and a high position in Persian literature. Literature is a social phenomenon and the connection between literature and society is undeniable. The present research has tried to investigate the difference in the use of upper and lower spatial metaphors in four different works by male and female authors in four decades. In order to show how spatial metaphors are used in these works and whether the influence of society's conditions in the emergence and the application of spatial metaphors is concrete. For this purpose, novels from the 60s Nakhlhaye Bisar, 70s Roye Mahe Khodavand ra Bebos, 80s Cheraghha ra Man Khamosh Mikonam and 90s Paeiz Fasle Akhare sal Ast were selected and were analyzed in a descriptive-analytical way according to Lakoff & Johnson (1980) and in the framework of cognitive semantics. The body of the research is the sentences from all four novels, which were analyzed. The findings showed that the amount of high metaphors is used more in the works of female authors, lived experiences play a role in the use of metaphors and high metaphors do not always have a happy meaning and low metaphors do not always have a sad meaning.

Cognitive semantics examines meaning by relying on the human mind's information processing and categorizing linguistic concepts. In this method, words and especially letters carry the main meaning. Each main meaning is connected with secondary meanings and creates a radial network. Therefore, the letters in the texts, especially in the Qur'an, gain meaning according to the context. The primary meaning of the letter "ba" in the Holy Quran is attachment, from which other meanings of causation, help, emphasis, confrontation, modification and swearing can be derived. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the present study evaluates the uses and meanings of the letter "ba" in Surah Ma'idah in the Persian translations by Makarem Shirazi, Foladvand, and Elahi-Qomshei. According to the findings of the present research, these translators have focused mostly on the original and common meaning of the letter in the semantic network, i.e., attachment and superiority. The reason for this claim is that, for example, they did not convey the exact meaning regarding emphasis, and in most cases, instead conveying the emphatic meaning, they chose the traditional equivalent of "to", conveying the concept of attachment.

One of the topics raised in cognitive linguistics is the topic of radial network. The purpose of this study aimed to comparison of the learning process of prepositions (from, in, to and with) from the perspective of the radial network in children of age group A and B by the theory of stages of child development and language learning. In should be mentioned that the radial network has not been sufficiently focused on by cognitive linguistics. The results of this research can have a great impact on children's fiction literature and fiction writers in the field of children can use the results of this research. The present study was descriptive _analytical in the theoretical framework of cognitive semantics. The statistical population includes 40 children from 2 and 9 years. To collect the data, children's natural speech was used the field method (Instagram videos). The research results show that the preposition "to" with the meaning of addressing someone has the highest frequency in age groups A and B. From the point of view of Bruner's cognitive theory, children in age group A are in the stage of movement and image representation and in age group B are in the stage of symbolic representation. A radial network is a term used to describe a collection of words that are interconnected through their meanings, concepts, and expressions. These words possess multiple definitions and are categorically related radially. Within this framework, a single meaning is designated as the primary or archetypal meaning, while alternative meanings are situated around it, akin to rays radiating out from a central, exemplary core.

Researchers in cognitive science believe that language is of great importance and consider it a gateway to the mind. According to them, language is one of the highest manifestations of the mind, which is a product of knowledge and a cognitive process in itself. Therefore, cognitive linguistics, as the school that considers language style, learning, and use to be the best reference that can be used to explain human cognition, has a special place in cognitive science. Cognitive linguists such as Lakoff and Johnson consider the metaphor not as a literary craft but as a suitable tool for how to think and refer to it as the conceptual metaphor.One of the important types of conceptual metaphors is the directional metaphor, which is effective in conveying concepts, the author's attitude, and expressing mental and abstract themes in the form of sensations and material experiences. Metaphors are used in language beyond what we see in traditional rhetoric, and by looking at them and the indirect and symbolic meanings of linguistic expressions, a deeper understanding of texts can be achieved. The present study investigates the directional metaphor (up-down) in the novel Frankenstein in Baghdad using a descriptive-analytical method. Although the mapping (up-down) in the novel is mostly used to express natural physical states, the author in some cases also uses de-normization and de-familiarization manners, using metaphors from concept to concept. In this regard, the novel Frankenstein in Baghdad is full of cognitive metaphors, especially directional metaphors. In this study, we have discussed cases related to directional metaphors (up-down) and extracted diverse and broad meanings from them.In this novel, the up-direction metaphor is used with the theme of dominance, power, health, happiness, life, forcing, abundance, rationality, faith, understanding, openness, hope, good social position, wisdom, warmth, and pride. On the other hand, the author has implicitly mentioned the metaphors of the lower direction, which means being under control, weakness and incapacity, illness, sadness, etc. The author has imagined a physical state for them to induce them in the mind of the audience. He used words like ‘Tahta’, ‘Favgha’, and ‘Ala’ and also verbs in the past and present tenses. Through the topics that are mentioned in directional metaphors (up-down), we clearly understand that they are all abstract topics and the author has imagined a physical state for them. This cognitive transfer of metaphor made it a tool that reveals all these directional perceptions and their relationship to the author’s knowledge.The author used man's physical and physical locations in the world and his objective experiences in order to point out the cultural and intellectual features and connotations that these metaphors carry. In other words, by using these metaphors, he gave the words new meanings and gave his statement a force that distinguished it from other speech. The use of metaphorical speech has superior cognitive power if we compare it with ordinary speech, as the human experiences that Ahmed Saadawi’s mind treasures are linked to his culture and to the directional determinants that he formulates with directional metaphors that express that culture. In other words, the metaphor in the field of cognitive linguistics is not just a linguistic tool to beautify and decorate speech. Rather, it is a cognitive method that is the result of the interaction of the two mental-sensual fields, as it reflects much of the knowledge existing in the society, and the recipient relies on it in the process of interpretation and understanding. Metaphors in the cognitive field expand the field of interpretation, as they open up to multiple meanings and expand the space of connotations.

Polysemy is a phenomenon in which a lexical item is usually associated with two or more meanings that seem to be related in some way. The current research aims to conduct semantic research on a limited body of language in order to obtain a generalizable result. Relying on the descriptive-analytical method and using the cognitive lexical semantics approach of Tyler and Evans (2003), the authors have extracted and analyzed the different meanings of 7 prepositions of time (wӕrӡӕ,Ɂӕre, nǝzik, dӕ, dǝma, dǝj, ta) in Ilami Kurdish language which were extracted from the daily speech of the people and Ilami Kurdish dictionary. Finally, it was found that the cognitive semantics approach is a very suitable method to investigate the prepositions of time in the Ilami Kurdish language, and the results showed that in these prepositions, several concepts are organized in relation to a central concept and we showed that all these concepts are systematically derived from the first concept according to the criteria of Tyler and Evans. In such a way that proposition(wӕrӡӕ) just has one central meaning, but propositions (Ɂӕre, nǝzik, dӕ) beside the central meaning have another meaning and propositions (dǝma, dǝj, ta) beside the central meaning have two other related meanings.